chore: release v0.7.0

Add micro-benchmarks for TPE, Random, and Grid samplers with varying
history sizes, end-to-end optimization benchmarks on Sphere and
Rosenbrock, and a convergence tracking example that outputs CSV data.
Includes 6 standard test functions (Sphere, Rosenbrock, Rastrigin,
Ackley, Branin, Hartmann6) with correctness tests at known optima.

Cargo.toml

@@ -1,6 +1,9 @@
+[workspace]
+members = ["optimizer-derive"]
+
 [package]
 name = "optimizer"
-version = "0.4.0"
+version = "0.7.0"
 edition = "2024"
 rust-version = "1.88"
 license = "MIT"
@@ -13,18 +16,39 @@ categories = ["algorithm", "science", "data-structures"]
 readme = "README.md"
 
 [dependencies]
-log = "0.4"
-rand = "0.9"
+rand = "0.10"
 thiserror = "2"
 parking_lot = "0.12"
 tokio = { version = "1", features = ["sync", "rt-multi-thread"], optional = true }
+optimizer-derive = { version = "0.1.0", path = "optimizer-derive", optional = true }
+serde = { version = "1", features = ["derive"], optional = true }
+serde_json = { version = "1", optional = true }
+tracing = { version = "0.1", optional = true }
+sobol_burley = { version = "0.5", optional = true }
+nalgebra = { version = "0.33", optional = true }
 
 [features]
 default = []
 async = ["dep:tokio"]
+derive = ["dep:optimizer-derive"]
+serde = ["dep:serde", "dep:serde_json"]
+tracing = ["dep:tracing"]
+sobol = ["dep:sobol_burley"]
+cma-es = ["dep:nalgebra"]
 
 [dev-dependencies]
 tokio = { version = "1", features = ["rt-multi-thread", "macros", "time"] }
+optimizer-derive = { version = "0.1.0", path = "optimizer-derive" }
+serde_json = "1"
+criterion = { version = "0.8", features = ["html_reports"] }
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "samplers"
+harness = false
+
+[[bench]]
+name = "optimization"
+harness = false
 
 [[example]]
 name = "async_api_optimization"
@@ -34,3 +58,8 @@ required-features = ["async"]
 [[example]]
 name = "ml_hyperparameter_tuning"
 path = "examples/ml_hyperparameter_tuning.rs"
+
+[[example]]
+name = "parameter_api"
+path = "examples/parameter_api.rs"
+required-features = ["derive"]

README.md

@@ -13,28 +13,39 @@ A Rust library for black-box optimization with multiple sampling strategies.
   - **Random Search** - Simple random sampling for baseline comparisons
   - **TPE (Tree-Parzen Estimator)** - Bayesian optimization for efficient search
   - **Grid Search** - Exhaustive search over a specified parameter grid
-- Float, integer, and categorical parameter types
+- Float, integer, categorical, boolean, and enum parameter types
 - Log-scale and stepped parameter sampling
 - Sync and async optimization with parallel trial evaluation
+- `#[derive(Categorical)]` for enum parameters
 
 ## Quick Start
 
 ```rust
-use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
+use optimizer::parameter::{FloatParam, Parameter};
 use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
+use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
 
+// Create a study with TPE sampler
 let sampler = TpeSampler::builder().seed(42).build().unwrap();
 let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+// Define parameter search space
+let x_param = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0);
+
+// Optimize x^2 for 20 trials
 study
     .optimize_with_sampler(20, |trial| {
-        let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -10.0, 10.0)?;
+        let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
         Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(x * x)
     })
     .unwrap();
 
+// Get the best result
 let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
-println!("Best value: {} at x={:?}", best.value, best.params);
+println!("Best value: {}", best.value);
+for (id, label) in &best.param_labels {
+    println!("  {}: {:?}", label, best.params[id]);
+}
 ```
 
 ## Samplers
@@ -134,6 +145,7 @@ let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 ## Feature Flags
 
 - `async` - Enable async optimization methods (requires tokio)
+- `derive` - Enable `#[derive(Categorical)]` for enum parameters
 
 ## Documentation
 

benches/optimization.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+#[allow(dead_code)]
+mod test_functions;
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use optimizer::parameter::Parameter;
+use optimizer::sampler::random::RandomSampler;
+use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
+use optimizer::{FloatParam, Study};
+
+fn make_params(dims: usize) -> Vec<FloatParam> {
+    (0..dims)
+        .map(|i| FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name(format!("x{i}")))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn bench_tpe_sphere(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("tpe_sphere");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+
+    for dims in [2, 10, 50] {
+        let params = make_params(dims);
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::new("dims", dims), &params, |b, params| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let study = Study::minimize(TpeSampler::builder().seed(42).build().unwrap());
+                study
+                    .optimize(100, |trial| {
+                        let x: Vec<f64> = params
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|p| p.suggest(trial))
+                            .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+                            .unwrap();
+                        Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(test_functions::sphere(&x))
+                    })
+                    .unwrap();
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_tpe_rosenbrock(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("tpe_rosenbrock");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+
+    for dims in [2, 10] {
+        let params = make_params(dims);
+        group.bench_with_input(BenchmarkId::new("dims", dims), &params, |b, params| {
+            b.iter(|| {
+                let study = Study::minimize(TpeSampler::builder().seed(42).build().unwrap());
+                study
+                    .optimize(100, |trial| {
+                        let x: Vec<f64> = params
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|p| p.suggest(trial))
+                            .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+                            .unwrap();
+                        Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(test_functions::rosenbrock(&x))
+                    })
+                    .unwrap();
+            });
+        });
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_random_vs_tpe(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("random_vs_tpe");
+    group.sample_size(10);
+    let params = make_params(5);
+
+    group.bench_function("random_5d", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let study = Study::minimize(RandomSampler::with_seed(42));
+            study
+                .optimize(100, |trial| {
+                    let x: Vec<f64> = params
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|p| p.suggest(trial))
+                        .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+                        .unwrap();
+                    Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(test_functions::sphere(&x))
+                })
+                .unwrap();
+        });
+    });
+
+    group.bench_function("tpe_5d", |b| {
+        b.iter(|| {
+            let study = Study::minimize(TpeSampler::builder().seed(42).build().unwrap());
+            study
+                .optimize(100, |trial| {
+                    let x: Vec<f64> = params
+                        .iter()
+                        .map(|p| p.suggest(trial))
+                        .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+                        .unwrap();
+                    Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(test_functions::sphere(&x))
+                })
+                .unwrap();
+        });
+    });
+
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    benches,
+    bench_tpe_sphere,
+    bench_tpe_rosenbrock,
+    bench_random_vs_tpe
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);

benches/samplers.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use criterion::{BenchmarkId, Criterion, criterion_group, criterion_main};
+use optimizer::parameter::Parameter;
+use optimizer::sampler::Sampler;
+use optimizer::sampler::grid::GridSearchSampler;
+use optimizer::sampler::random::RandomSampler;
+use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
+use optimizer::{CompletedTrial, FloatParam};
+
+/// Build a synthetic history of `n` completed trials over `dims` float parameters.
+fn build_history(n: usize, dims: usize) -> Vec<CompletedTrial<f64>> {
+    let params: Vec<FloatParam> = (0..dims)
+        .map(|i| FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name(format!("x{i}")))
+        .collect();
+
+    let mut history = Vec::with_capacity(n);
+    let sampler = RandomSampler::with_seed(42);
+
+    for trial_id in 0..n {
+        let id = trial_id as u64;
+        let mut param_values = HashMap::new();
+        let mut distributions = HashMap::new();
+        let mut param_labels = HashMap::new();
+        for p in &params {
+            let dist = p.distribution();
+            let val = sampler.sample(&dist, id, &history);
+            param_values.insert(p.id(), val);
+            distributions.insert(p.id(), dist);
+            param_labels.insert(p.id(), p.label());
+        }
+        // Use sphere function value as objective
+        let value: f64 = param_values
+            .values()
+            .map(|v| {
+                let optimizer::ParamValue::Float(f) = v else {
+                    unreachable!()
+                };
+                f * f
+            })
+            .sum();
+        history.push(CompletedTrial::new(
+            id,
+            param_values,
+            distributions,
+            param_labels,
+            value,
+        ));
+    }
+    history
+}
+
+fn bench_tpe_sample(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("tpe_sample");
+    let dist = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).distribution();
+    let tpe = TpeSampler::builder().seed(42).build().unwrap();
+
+    for history_size in [10, 100, 1000] {
+        let history = build_history(history_size, 2);
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("history", history_size),
+            &history,
+            |b, history| {
+                b.iter(|| tpe.sample(&dist, history.len() as u64, history));
+            },
+        );
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_random_sample(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("random_sample");
+    let dist = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).distribution();
+    let sampler = RandomSampler::with_seed(42);
+
+    for history_size in [10, 100, 1000] {
+        let history = build_history(history_size, 2);
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("history", history_size),
+            &history,
+            |b, history| {
+                b.iter(|| sampler.sample(&dist, history.len() as u64, history));
+            },
+        );
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+fn bench_grid_sample(c: &mut Criterion) {
+    let mut group = c.benchmark_group("grid_sample");
+    let dist = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).distribution();
+    let history: Vec<CompletedTrial<f64>> = Vec::new();
+
+    for grid_points in [5, 10, 50] {
+        group.bench_with_input(
+            BenchmarkId::new("points", grid_points),
+            &grid_points,
+            |b, _| {
+                b.iter(|| {
+                    // Fresh sampler each iteration since grid tracks used points
+                    let sampler = GridSearchSampler::builder()
+                        .n_points_per_param(grid_points)
+                        .build();
+                    sampler.sample(&dist, 0, &history)
+                });
+            },
+        );
+    }
+    group.finish();
+}
+
+criterion_group!(
+    benches,
+    bench_tpe_sample,
+    bench_random_sample,
+    bench_grid_sample
+);
+criterion_main!(benches);

benches/test_functions.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+//! Standard optimization test functions for benchmarking.
+
+/// Sphere function: unimodal, convex. Global minimum f(0,...,0) = 0.
+pub fn sphere(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    x.iter().map(|xi| xi * xi).sum()
+}
+
+/// Rosenbrock function: narrow valley. Global minimum f(1,...,1) = 0.
+pub fn rosenbrock(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    x.windows(2)
+        .map(|w| 100.0 * (w[1] - w[0] * w[0]).powi(2) + (1.0 - w[0]).powi(2))
+        .sum()
+}
+
+/// Rastrigin function: highly multimodal. Global minimum f(0,...,0) = 0.
+pub fn rastrigin(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    let n = x.len() as f64;
+    10.0 * n
+        + x.iter()
+            .map(|xi| xi * xi - 10.0 * (2.0 * std::f64::consts::PI * xi).cos())
+            .sum::<f64>()
+}
+
+/// Ackley function: nearly flat with a deep well. Global minimum f(0,...,0) = 0.
+pub fn ackley(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    let n = x.len() as f64;
+    let sum_sq: f64 = x.iter().map(|xi| xi * xi).sum();
+    let sum_cos: f64 = x
+        .iter()
+        .map(|xi| (2.0 * std::f64::consts::PI * xi).cos())
+        .sum();
+    -20.0 * (-0.2 * (sum_sq / n).sqrt()).exp() - (sum_cos / n).exp() + 20.0 + std::f64::consts::E
+}
+
+/// Branin function (2D only). Three global minima with f* ≈ 0.397887.
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// Panics if `x` does not have exactly 2 elements.
+pub fn branin(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    assert!(x.len() == 2, "Branin requires exactly 2 dimensions");
+    let (x1, x2) = (x[0], x[1]);
+    let pi = std::f64::consts::PI;
+    let a = 1.0;
+    let b = 5.1 / (4.0 * pi * pi);
+    let c = 5.0 / pi;
+    let r = 6.0;
+    let s = 10.0;
+    let t = 1.0 / (8.0 * pi);
+    a * (x2 - b * x1 * x1 + c * x1 - r).powi(2) + s * (1.0 - t) * x1.cos() + s
+}
+
+/// Hartmann 6D function. Global minimum f* ≈ -3.3224.
+///
+/// # Panics
+///
+/// Panics if `x` does not have exactly 6 elements.
+pub fn hartmann6(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    assert!(x.len() == 6, "Hartmann6 requires exactly 6 dimensions");
+
+    let alpha = [1.0, 1.2, 3.0, 3.2];
+    let a_matrix = [
+        [10.0, 3.0, 17.0, 3.5, 1.7, 8.0],
+        [0.05, 10.0, 17.0, 0.1, 8.0, 14.0],
+        [3.0, 3.5, 1.7, 10.0, 17.0, 8.0],
+        [17.0, 8.0, 0.05, 10.0, 0.1, 14.0],
+    ];
+    let p_matrix = [
+        [0.1312, 0.1696, 0.5569, 0.0124, 0.8283, 0.5886],
+        [0.2329, 0.4135, 0.8307, 0.3736, 0.1004, 0.9991],
+        [0.2348, 0.1451, 0.3522, 0.2883, 0.3047, 0.6650],
+        [0.4047, 0.8828, 0.8732, 0.5743, 0.1091, 0.0381],
+    ];
+
+    let mut result = 0.0;
+    for i in 0..4 {
+        let mut inner = 0.0;
+        for (j, xj) in x.iter().enumerate() {
+            inner += a_matrix[i][j] * (xj - p_matrix[i][j]).powi(2);
+        }
+        result -= alpha[i] * (-inner).exp();
+    }
+    result
+}

examples/async_api_optimization.rs

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 //!
 //! # Key Concepts Demonstrated
 //!
-//! - Async optimization with `optimize_parallel_with_sampler`
+//! - Async optimization with `optimize_parallel`
 //! - Running multiple trials concurrently for faster optimization
 //! - Boolean and categorical parameter types
 //! - Measuring speedup from parallelism
@@ -26,8 +26,7 @@
 
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
 
-use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
-use optimizer::{Direction, ParamValue, Study, Trial};
+use optimizer::prelude::*;
 
 // ============================================================================
 // Configuration: Service parameters we want to tune
@@ -133,32 +132,27 @@ async fn evaluate_service(config: &ServiceConfig) -> f64 {
 /// 3. Return both the Trial and the result value as a tuple
 ///
 /// This ownership pattern allows the trial to be used across await points.
-async fn objective(mut trial: Trial) -> optimizer::Result<(Trial, f64)> {
-    // Sample configuration parameters
-
-    // Stepped integers: only sample multiples of the step value
-    let cache_size_mb = trial.suggest_int_step("cache_size_mb", 64, 1024, 64)?;
-    let connection_pool_size = trial.suggest_int_step("connection_pool_size", 10, 200, 10)?;
-    let request_timeout_ms = trial.suggest_int_step("request_timeout_ms", 1000, 10000, 500)?;
-
-    // Regular integer
-    let retry_count = trial.suggest_int("retry_count", 0, 5)?;
-
-    // Log-scale integer: good for parameters like batch sizes
-    // that might vary from 1 to 256
-    let batch_size = trial.suggest_int_log("batch_size", 1, 256)?;
-
-    // Regular integer for compression level
-    let compression_level = trial.suggest_int("compression_level", 0, 9)?;
-
-    // Boolean: internally uses categorical with [false, true]
-    let use_http2 = trial.suggest_bool("use_http2")?;
-
-    // Categorical: choose from a list of options
-    let load_balancing = trial.suggest_categorical(
-        "load_balancing",
-        &["round_robin", "least_connections", "random", "ip_hash"],
-    )?;
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+async fn objective(
+    mut trial: Trial,
+    cache_size_mb_param: &IntParam,
+    connection_pool_size_param: &IntParam,
+    request_timeout_ms_param: &IntParam,
+    retry_count_param: &IntParam,
+    batch_size_param: &IntParam,
+    compression_level_param: &IntParam,
+    use_http2_param: &BoolParam,
+    load_balancing_param: &CategoricalParam<&str>,
+) -> optimizer::Result<(Trial, f64)> {
+    // Sample configuration parameters using parameter definitions
+    let cache_size_mb = cache_size_mb_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+    let connection_pool_size = connection_pool_size_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+    let request_timeout_ms = request_timeout_ms_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+    let retry_count = retry_count_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+    let batch_size = batch_size_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+    let compression_level = compression_level_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+    let use_http2 = use_http2_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+    let load_balancing = load_balancing_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
 
     // Build configuration
     let config = ServiceConfig {
@@ -183,24 +177,6 @@ async fn objective(mut trial: Trial) -> optimizer::Result<(Trial, f64)> {
 // Helper Functions
 // ============================================================================
 
-/// Formats a parameter value for display.
-fn format_param(name: &str, value: &ParamValue) -> String {
-    match (name, value) {
-        (_, ParamValue::Float(v)) => format!("{v:.4}"),
-        (_, ParamValue::Int(v)) => format!("{v}"),
-        ("use_http2", ParamValue::Categorical(idx)) => {
-            if *idx == 1 { "true" } else { "false" }.to_string()
-        }
-        ("load_balancing", ParamValue::Categorical(idx)) => {
-            ["round_robin", "least_connections", "random", "ip_hash"]
-                .get(*idx)
-                .unwrap_or(&"unknown")
-                .to_string()
-        }
-        (_, ParamValue::Categorical(idx)) => format!("category_{idx}"),
-    }
-}
-
 /// Prints the results of the optimization.
 fn print_results(study: &Study<f64>, elapsed: Duration, n_trials: usize) {
     println!("\n{}", "=".repeat(60));
@@ -219,31 +195,46 @@ fn print_results(study: &Study<f64>, elapsed: Duration, n_trials: usize) {
 }
 
 /// Prints the best configuration found.
-fn print_best_config(study: &Study<f64>) -> optimizer::Result<()> {
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn print_best_config(
+    study: &Study<f64>,
+    cache_size_mb_param: &IntParam,
+    connection_pool_size_param: &IntParam,
+    request_timeout_ms_param: &IntParam,
+    retry_count_param: &IntParam,
+    batch_size_param: &IntParam,
+    compression_level_param: &IntParam,
+    use_http2_param: &BoolParam,
+    load_balancing_param: &CategoricalParam<&str>,
+) -> optimizer::Result<()> {
     let best = study.best_trial()?;
 
     println!("\nBest configuration found:");
     println!("  Score: {:.6}", best.value);
     println!("\n  Parameters:");
-
-    // Print parameters in a logical order
-    let param_order = [
-        "cache_size_mb",
-        "connection_pool_size",
-        "request_timeout_ms",
-        "retry_count",
-        "batch_size",
-        "compression_level",
-        "use_http2",
-        "load_balancing",
-    ];
-
-    for name in param_order {
-        if let Some(value) = best.params.get(name) {
-            let display = format_param(name, value);
-            println!("    {name}: {display}");
-        }
-    }
+    println!(
+        "    cache_size_mb: {}",
+        best.get(cache_size_mb_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!(
+        "    connection_pool_size: {}",
+        best.get(connection_pool_size_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!(
+        "    request_timeout_ms: {}",
+        best.get(request_timeout_ms_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!("    retry_count: {}", best.get(retry_count_param).unwrap());
+    println!("    batch_size: {}", best.get(batch_size_param).unwrap());
+    println!(
+        "    compression_level: {}",
+        best.get(compression_level_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!("    use_http2: {}", best.get(use_http2_param).unwrap());
+    println!(
+        "    load_balancing: {}",
+        best.get(load_balancing_param).unwrap()
+    );
 
     Ok(())
 }
@@ -284,7 +275,35 @@ async fn main() -> optimizer::Result<()> {
     // Step 2: Create a study to minimize the score
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
-    // Step 3: Configure optimization
+    // Step 3: Define parameter search spaces
+    let cache_size_mb_param = IntParam::new(64, 1024).name("cache_size_mb").step(64);
+    let connection_pool_size_param = IntParam::new(10, 200).name("connection_pool_size").step(10);
+    let request_timeout_ms_param = IntParam::new(1000, 10000)
+        .name("request_timeout_ms")
+        .step(500);
+    let retry_count_param = IntParam::new(0, 5).name("retry_count");
+    let batch_size_param = IntParam::new(1, 256).name("batch_size").log_scale();
+    let compression_level_param = IntParam::new(0, 9).name("compression_level");
+    let use_http2_param = BoolParam::new().name("use_http2");
+    let load_balancing_param = CategoricalParam::new(vec![
+        "round_robin",
+        "least_connections",
+        "random",
+        "ip_hash",
+    ])
+    .name("load_balancing");
+
+    // Clone params for use after the closure moves them
+    let cache_size_mb_p = cache_size_mb_param.clone();
+    let connection_pool_size_p = connection_pool_size_param.clone();
+    let request_timeout_ms_p = request_timeout_ms_param.clone();
+    let retry_count_p = retry_count_param.clone();
+    let batch_size_p = batch_size_param.clone();
+    let compression_level_p = compression_level_param.clone();
+    let use_http2_p = use_http2_param.clone();
+    let load_balancing_p = load_balancing_param.clone();
+
+    // Step 4: Configure optimization
     let n_trials = 40;
     let concurrency = 4; // Run 4 trials in parallel
 
@@ -292,25 +311,57 @@ async fn main() -> optimizer::Result<()> {
 
     let start = Instant::now();
 
-    // Step 4: Run parallel async optimization
+    // Step 5: Run parallel async optimization
     //
-    // optimize_parallel_with_sampler:
+    // optimize_parallel:
     // - Runs up to `concurrency` trials simultaneously
     // - Each trial calls the objective function
     // - Uses a semaphore to limit concurrent evaluations
     // - Collects results as trials complete
     //
-    // The "_with_sampler" suffix means the TPE sampler gets access to
-    // trial history for informed sampling.
+    // The sampler gets access to trial history for informed sampling.
     study
-        .optimize_parallel_with_sampler(n_trials, concurrency, objective)
+        .optimize_parallel(n_trials, concurrency, move |trial| {
+            let cache_size_mb_param = cache_size_mb_param.clone();
+            let connection_pool_size_param = connection_pool_size_param.clone();
+            let request_timeout_ms_param = request_timeout_ms_param.clone();
+            let retry_count_param = retry_count_param.clone();
+            let batch_size_param = batch_size_param.clone();
+            let compression_level_param = compression_level_param.clone();
+            let use_http2_param = use_http2_param.clone();
+            let load_balancing_param = load_balancing_param.clone();
+            async move {
+                objective(
+                    trial,
+                    &cache_size_mb_param,
+                    &connection_pool_size_param,
+                    &request_timeout_ms_param,
+                    &retry_count_param,
+                    &batch_size_param,
+                    &compression_level_param,
+                    &use_http2_param,
+                    &load_balancing_param,
+                )
+                .await
+            }
+        })
         .await?;
 
     let elapsed = start.elapsed();
 
     // Step 5: Print results
     print_results(&study, elapsed, n_trials);
-    print_best_config(&study)?;
+    print_best_config(
+        &study,
+        &cache_size_mb_p,
+        &connection_pool_size_p,
+        &request_timeout_ms_p,
+        &retry_count_p,
+        &batch_size_p,
+        &compression_level_p,
+        &use_http2_p,
+        &load_balancing_p,
+    )?;
     print_top_trials(&study, 5);
 
     Ok(())

examples/benchmark_convergence.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,124 @@
+use std::ops::ControlFlow;
+use std::time::Instant;
+
+use optimizer::parameter::Parameter;
+use optimizer::sampler::random::RandomSampler;
+use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
+use optimizer::{FloatParam, Study};
+
+/// Standard optimization test functions.
+mod functions {
+    pub fn sphere(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+        x.iter().map(|xi| xi * xi).sum()
+    }
+
+    pub fn rosenbrock(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+        x.windows(2)
+            .map(|w| 100.0 * (w[1] - w[0] * w[0]).powi(2) + (1.0 - w[0]).powi(2))
+            .sum()
+    }
+
+    pub fn rastrigin(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+        let n = x.len() as f64;
+        10.0 * n
+            + x.iter()
+                .map(|xi| xi * xi - 10.0 * (2.0 * std::f64::consts::PI * xi).cos())
+                .sum::<f64>()
+    }
+}
+
+fn run_convergence(
+    name: &str,
+    sampler_name: &str,
+    study: Study<f64>,
+    params: &[FloatParam],
+    objective: fn(&[f64]) -> f64,
+    n_trials: usize,
+) {
+    let start = Instant::now();
+
+    study
+        .optimize_with_callback(
+            n_trials,
+            |trial| {
+                let x: Vec<f64> = params
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|p| p.suggest(trial))
+                    .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+                    .unwrap();
+                Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(objective(&x))
+            },
+            |study, _trial| {
+                let elapsed = start.elapsed().as_millis();
+                let best = study.best_value().unwrap();
+                let n = study.n_trials();
+                println!("{n},{best},{elapsed},{sampler_name},{name}");
+                ControlFlow::Continue(())
+            },
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    println!("trial,best_value,elapsed_ms,sampler,function");
+
+    let dims = 5;
+    let params: Vec<FloatParam> = (0..dims)
+        .map(|i| FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name(format!("x{i}")))
+        .collect();
+    let n_trials = 200;
+
+    // Sphere: Random vs TPE
+    run_convergence(
+        "sphere_5d",
+        "random",
+        Study::minimize(RandomSampler::with_seed(1)),
+        &params,
+        functions::sphere,
+        n_trials,
+    );
+    run_convergence(
+        "sphere_5d",
+        "tpe",
+        Study::minimize(TpeSampler::builder().seed(1).build().unwrap()),
+        &params,
+        functions::sphere,
+        n_trials,
+    );
+
+    // Rosenbrock: Random vs TPE
+    run_convergence(
+        "rosenbrock_5d",
+        "random",
+        Study::minimize(RandomSampler::with_seed(2)),
+        &params,
+        functions::rosenbrock,
+        n_trials,
+    );
+    run_convergence(
+        "rosenbrock_5d",
+        "tpe",
+        Study::minimize(TpeSampler::builder().seed(2).build().unwrap()),
+        &params,
+        functions::rosenbrock,
+        n_trials,
+    );
+
+    // Rastrigin: Random vs TPE
+    run_convergence(
+        "rastrigin_5d",
+        "random",
+        Study::minimize(RandomSampler::with_seed(3)),
+        &params,
+        functions::rastrigin,
+        n_trials,
+    );
+    run_convergence(
+        "rastrigin_5d",
+        "tpe",
+        Study::minimize(TpeSampler::builder().seed(3).build().unwrap()),
+        &params,
+        functions::rastrigin,
+        n_trials,
+    );
+}

examples/ml_hyperparameter_tuning.rs

@@ -23,9 +23,7 @@
 
 use std::ops::ControlFlow;
 
-use optimizer::sampler::CompletedTrial;
-use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
-use optimizer::{Direction, ParamValue, Study, Trial};
+use optimizer::prelude::*;
 
 // ============================================================================
 // Configuration: Hyperparameters we want to tune
@@ -87,34 +85,32 @@ fn evaluate_model(config: &ModelConfig) -> f64 {
 /// The objective function that the optimizer calls for each trial.
 ///
 /// This function:
-/// 1. Uses `trial.suggest_*()` methods to sample hyperparameter values
-/// 2. Builds a model configuration from those values
+/// 1. Uses parameter definitions passed as arguments
+/// 2. Builds a model configuration from the suggested values
 /// 3. Evaluates the model and returns the loss
 ///
 /// The optimizer learns from the results to suggest better parameters
 /// in future trials.
-fn objective(trial: &mut Trial) -> optimizer::Result<f64> {
-    // Sample hyperparameters using different strategies:
-
-    // Log-scale: Good for parameters spanning multiple orders of magnitude
-    // The learning rate might be 0.001, 0.01, or 0.1 - log-scale samples evenly across these
-    let learning_rate = trial.suggest_float_log("learning_rate", 0.001, 0.3)?;
-
-    // Regular integer: Uniformly samples from the range [3, 12]
-    let max_depth = trial.suggest_int("max_depth", 3, 12)?;
-
-    // Stepped integer: Only samples multiples of 50 (50, 100, 150, ..., 500)
-    // Useful when you only want to test specific values
-    let n_estimators = trial.suggest_int_step("n_estimators", 50, 500, 50)?;
-
-    // Regular float: Uniformly samples from [0.5, 1.0]
-    let subsample = trial.suggest_float("subsample", 0.5, 1.0)?;
-    let colsample_bytree = trial.suggest_float("colsample_bytree", 0.5, 1.0)?;
-
-    // More parameters
-    let min_child_weight = trial.suggest_int("min_child_weight", 1, 10)?;
-    let reg_alpha = trial.suggest_float_log("reg_alpha", 1e-3, 10.0)?;
-    let reg_lambda = trial.suggest_float_log("reg_lambda", 1e-3, 10.0)?;
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn objective(
+    trial: &mut Trial,
+    learning_rate_param: &FloatParam,
+    max_depth_param: &IntParam,
+    n_estimators_param: &IntParam,
+    subsample_param: &FloatParam,
+    colsample_bytree_param: &FloatParam,
+    min_child_weight_param: &IntParam,
+    reg_alpha_param: &FloatParam,
+    reg_lambda_param: &FloatParam,
+) -> optimizer::Result<f64> {
+    let learning_rate = learning_rate_param.suggest(trial)?;
+    let max_depth = max_depth_param.suggest(trial)?;
+    let n_estimators = n_estimators_param.suggest(trial)?;
+    let subsample = subsample_param.suggest(trial)?;
+    let colsample_bytree = colsample_bytree_param.suggest(trial)?;
+    let min_child_weight = min_child_weight_param.suggest(trial)?;
+    let reg_alpha = reg_alpha_param.suggest(trial)?;
+    let reg_lambda = reg_lambda_param.suggest(trial)?;
 
     // Build configuration and evaluate
     let config = ModelConfig {
@@ -148,35 +144,12 @@ fn objective(trial: &mut Trial) -> optimizer::Result<f64> {
 /// Return `ControlFlow::Continue(())` to keep optimizing.
 /// Return `ControlFlow::Break(())` to stop early.
 fn on_trial_complete(study: &Study<f64>, trial: &CompletedTrial<f64>) -> ControlFlow<()> {
-    // Helper to extract parameter values
-    let get_float = |name: &str| -> f64 {
-        match trial.params.get(name) {
-            Some(ParamValue::Float(v)) => *v,
-            _ => 0.0,
-        }
-    };
-
-    let get_int = |name: &str| -> i64 {
-        match trial.params.get(name) {
-            Some(ParamValue::Int(v)) => *v,
-            _ => 0,
-        }
-    };
-
-    // Print progress
-    println!(
-        "{:>5} {:>10.5} {:>10} {:>12} {:>10.3} {:>12.3} {:>8} {:>10.4} {:>10.4} {:>12.6}",
-        study.n_trials(),
-        get_float("learning_rate"),
-        get_int("max_depth"),
-        get_int("n_estimators"),
-        get_float("subsample"),
-        get_float("colsample_bytree"),
-        get_int("min_child_weight"),
-        get_float("reg_alpha"),
-        get_float("reg_lambda"),
-        trial.value,
-    );
+    // Print trial number and objective value
+    print!("{:>5} ", study.n_trials());
+    for value in trial.params.values() {
+        print!("{value:>12} ");
+    }
+    println!("{:>12.6}", trial.value);
 
     // Early stopping: if we find an excellent solution, stop early
     if trial.value < 0.16 {
@@ -218,29 +191,47 @@ fn main() -> optimizer::Result<()> {
     // Print header
     println!("Starting hyperparameter optimization...\n");
     println!(
-        "{:>5} {:>10} {:>10} {:>12} {:>10} {:>12} {:>8} {:>10} {:>10} {:>12}",
-        "Trial",
-        "LR",
-        "MaxDepth",
-        "Estimators",
-        "Subsample",
-        "ColSample",
-        "MinCW",
-        "Alpha",
-        "Lambda",
-        "Loss"
+        "{:>5} {:>12} (parameters...)    {:>12}",
+        "Trial", "Params", "Loss"
     );
-    println!("{}", "-".repeat(110));
+    println!("{}", "-".repeat(60));
 
-    // Step 3: Run optimization
+    // Step 3: Define parameter search spaces
+    let learning_rate_param = FloatParam::new(0.001, 0.3)
+        .name("learning_rate")
+        .log_scale();
+    let max_depth_param = IntParam::new(3, 12).name("max_depth");
+    let n_estimators_param = IntParam::new(50, 500).name("n_estimators").step(50);
+    let subsample_param = FloatParam::new(0.5, 1.0).name("subsample");
+    let colsample_bytree_param = FloatParam::new(0.5, 1.0).name("colsample_bytree");
+    let min_child_weight_param = IntParam::new(1, 10).name("min_child_weight");
+    let reg_alpha_param = FloatParam::new(1e-3, 10.0).name("reg_alpha").log_scale();
+    let reg_lambda_param = FloatParam::new(1e-3, 10.0).name("reg_lambda").log_scale();
+
+    // Step 4: Run optimization
     //
-    // optimize_with_callback_sampler runs the objective function for up to
+    // optimize_with_callback runs the objective function for up to
     // n_trials iterations. After each trial, it calls the callback.
-    // The "_sampler" suffix means the TPE sampler gets access to trial
-    // history for informed sampling.
+    // The sampler gets access to trial history for informed sampling.
     let n_trials = 50;
 
-    study.optimize_with_callback_sampler(n_trials, objective, on_trial_complete)?;
+    study.optimize_with_callback(
+        n_trials,
+        |trial| {
+            objective(
+                trial,
+                &learning_rate_param,
+                &max_depth_param,
+                &n_estimators_param,
+                &subsample_param,
+                &colsample_bytree_param,
+                &min_child_weight_param,
+                &reg_alpha_param,
+                &reg_lambda_param,
+            )
+        },
+        on_trial_complete,
+    )?;
 
     // Step 4: Get the best result
     println!("\n{}", "=".repeat(110));
@@ -251,14 +242,29 @@ fn main() -> optimizer::Result<()> {
     println!("\nBest trial:");
     println!("  Loss: {:.6}", best.value);
     println!("  Parameters:");
-
-    for (name, value) in &best.params {
-        match value {
-            ParamValue::Float(v) => println!("    {name}: {v:.6}"),
-            ParamValue::Int(v) => println!("    {name}: {v}"),
-            ParamValue::Categorical(v) => println!("    {name}: category {v}"),
-        }
-    }
+    println!(
+        "    learning_rate: {:.6}",
+        best.get(&learning_rate_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!("    max_depth: {}", best.get(&max_depth_param).unwrap());
+    println!(
+        "    n_estimators: {}",
+        best.get(&n_estimators_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!("    subsample: {:.6}", best.get(&subsample_param).unwrap());
+    println!(
+        "    colsample_bytree: {:.6}",
+        best.get(&colsample_bytree_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!(
+        "    min_child_weight: {}",
+        best.get(&min_child_weight_param).unwrap()
+    );
+    println!("    reg_alpha: {:.6}", best.get(&reg_alpha_param).unwrap());
+    println!(
+        "    reg_lambda: {:.6}",
+        best.get(&reg_lambda_param).unwrap()
+    );
 
     // Step 5: Use the best parameters (in a real app)
     //

examples/parameter_api.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+use optimizer::prelude::*;
+use optimizer_derive::Categorical;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Categorical)]
+enum Activation {
+    Relu,
+    Sigmoid,
+    Tanh,
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+    // Define parameters outside the objective function
+    let lr_param = FloatParam::new(1e-5, 1e-1).name("lr").log_scale();
+    let n_layers_param = IntParam::new(1, 5).name("n_layers");
+    let units_param = IntParam::new(32, 512).name("units").step(32);
+    let optimizer_param = CategoricalParam::new(vec!["sgd", "adam", "rmsprop"]).name("optimizer");
+    let activation_param = EnumParam::<Activation>::new().name("activation");
+    let batch_size_param = IntParam::new(16, 256).name("batch_size").log_scale();
+    let use_dropout_param = BoolParam::new().name("use_dropout");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(20, |trial| {
+            let lr = lr_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let n_layers = n_layers_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let units = units_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let optimizer = optimizer_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let use_dropout = use_dropout_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let activation = activation_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let batch_size = batch_size_param.suggest(trial)?;
+
+            // Simulate a loss function
+            let loss = lr * (n_layers as f64) + (units as f64) * 0.001
+                - if use_dropout { 0.1 } else { 0.0 };
+
+            println!(
+                "Trial {}: lr={lr:.6}, layers={n_layers}, units={units}, opt={optimizer}, \
+                 dropout={use_dropout}, activation={activation:?}, batch={batch_size} -> loss={loss:.4}",
+                trial.id()
+            );
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>(loss)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    println!("\nBest trial: value={:.4}", best.value);
+    println!("  lr: {:.6}", best.get(&lr_param).unwrap());
+    println!("  n_layers: {}", best.get(&n_layers_param).unwrap());
+    println!("  units: {}", best.get(&units_param).unwrap());
+    println!("  optimizer: {}", best.get(&optimizer_param).unwrap());
+    println!("  activation: {:?}", best.get(&activation_param).unwrap());
+    println!("  batch_size: {}", best.get(&batch_size_param).unwrap());
+    println!("  use_dropout: {}", best.get(&use_dropout_param).unwrap());
+}

optimizer-derive/Cargo.toml

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+[package]
+name = "optimizer-derive"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2024"
+rust-version = "1.88"
+license = "MIT"
+description = "Derive macros for the optimizer crate"
+repository = "https://github.com/raimannma/rust-optimizer"
+
+[lib]
+proc-macro = true
+
+[dependencies]
+syn = { version = "2", features = ["full"] }
+quote = "1"

optimizer-derive/src/lib.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+use proc_macro::TokenStream;
+use quote::quote;
+use syn::{Data, DeriveInput, Fields, parse_macro_input};
+
+/// Derive macro for the `Categorical` trait on fieldless enums.
+///
+/// Generates an implementation of `optimizer::Categorical` that maps
+/// enum variants to/from sequential indices.
+///
+/// # Example
+///
+/// ```ignore
+/// use optimizer::Categorical;
+///
+/// #[derive(Clone, Categorical)]
+/// enum Color {
+///     Red,
+///     Green,
+///     Blue,
+/// }
+/// ```
+#[proc_macro_derive(Categorical)]
+pub fn derive_categorical(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
+    let input = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput);
+    let name = &input.ident;
+
+    let Data::Enum(data_enum) = &input.data else {
+        return syn::Error::new_spanned(&input, "Categorical can only be derived for enums")
+            .to_compile_error()
+            .into();
+    };
+
+    // Validate all variants are fieldless
+    for variant in &data_enum.variants {
+        if !matches!(variant.fields, Fields::Unit) {
+            return syn::Error::new_spanned(
+                variant,
+                "Categorical can only be derived for enums with unit variants (no fields)",
+            )
+            .to_compile_error()
+            .into();
+        }
+    }
+
+    let n_choices = data_enum.variants.len();
+    let variant_names: Vec<_> = data_enum.variants.iter().map(|v| &v.ident).collect();
+    let indices: Vec<usize> = (0..n_choices).collect();
+
+    let (impl_generics, ty_generics, where_clause) = input.generics.split_for_impl();
+
+    let expanded = quote! {
+        impl #impl_generics optimizer::Categorical for #name #ty_generics #where_clause {
+            const N_CHOICES: usize = #n_choices;
+
+            fn from_index(index: usize) -> Self {
+                match index {
+                    #(#indices => #name::#variant_names,)*
+                    _ => panic!("invalid index {} for {} with {} variants", index, stringify!(#name), #n_choices),
+                }
+            }
+
+            fn to_index(&self) -> usize {
+                match self {
+                    #(#name::#variant_names => #indices,)*
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    };
+
+    expanded.into()
+}

src/distribution.rs

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 
 /// Distribution for floating-point parameters.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub struct FloatDistribution {
     /// Lower bound (inclusive).
     pub low: f64,
@@ -15,6 +16,7 @@ pub struct FloatDistribution {
 
 /// Distribution for integer parameters.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub struct IntDistribution {
     /// Lower bound (inclusive).
     pub low: i64,
@@ -28,6 +30,7 @@ pub struct IntDistribution {
 
 /// Distribution for categorical parameters.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub struct CategoricalDistribution {
     /// Number of choices available.
     pub n_choices: usize,
@@ -35,6 +38,7 @@ pub struct CategoricalDistribution {
 
 /// Enum wrapping all parameter distribution types.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub enum Distribution {
     /// A floating-point distribution.
     Float(FloatDistribution),

src/error.rs

@@ -72,6 +72,10 @@ pub enum Error {
         got: usize,
     },
 
+    /// Returned when a trial is pruned (stopped early by the objective function).
+    #[error("trial was pruned")]
+    TrialPruned,
+
     /// Returned when an internal invariant is violated.
     #[error("internal error: {0}")]
     Internal(&'static str),
@@ -83,3 +87,33 @@ pub enum Error {
 }
 
 pub type Result<T> = core::result::Result<T, Error>;
+
+/// Convenience type for signalling a pruned trial from an objective function.
+///
+/// Implements `Into<Error>` so it can be used with `?` in objectives that
+/// return `Result<V, Error>`.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::{Error, TrialPruned};
+///
+/// fn objective_that_prunes() -> Result<f64, Error> {
+///     // ... some computation ...
+///     Err(TrialPruned)?
+/// }
+/// ```
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct TrialPruned;
+
+impl core::fmt::Display for TrialPruned {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut core::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> core::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "trial was pruned")
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<TrialPruned> for Error {
+    fn from(_: TrialPruned) -> Self {
+        Error::TrialPruned
+    }
+}

src/importance.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+//! Parameter importance via Spearman rank correlation.
+
+/// Assign average ranks to a slice of `f64` values (handles ties).
+#[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss, clippy::float_cmp)]
+pub(crate) fn rank(values: &[f64]) -> Vec<f64> {
+    let n = values.len();
+    let mut indexed: Vec<(usize, f64)> = values.iter().copied().enumerate().collect();
+    indexed.sort_by(|a, b| a.1.partial_cmp(&b.1).unwrap_or(core::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+
+    let mut ranks = vec![0.0; n];
+    let mut i = 0;
+    while i < n {
+        // Find the run of tied values.
+        let mut j = i + 1;
+        while j < n && indexed[j].1 == indexed[i].1 {
+            j += 1;
+        }
+        // Average rank for the tie group (1-based ranks).
+        let avg = (i + 1..=j).sum::<usize>() as f64 / (j - i) as f64;
+        for item in &indexed[i..j] {
+            ranks[item.0] = avg;
+        }
+        i = j;
+    }
+    ranks
+}
+
+/// Pearson correlation coefficient on two equal-length slices.
+#[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+fn pearson(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    let n = x.len() as f64;
+    let mean_x = x.iter().sum::<f64>() / n;
+    let mean_y = y.iter().sum::<f64>() / n;
+
+    let mut cov = 0.0;
+    let mut var_x = 0.0;
+    let mut var_y = 0.0;
+    for (xi, yi) in x.iter().zip(y.iter()) {
+        let dx = xi - mean_x;
+        let dy = yi - mean_y;
+        cov += dx * dy;
+        var_x += dx * dx;
+        var_y += dy * dy;
+    }
+
+    let denom = (var_x * var_y).sqrt();
+    if denom == 0.0 { 0.0 } else { cov / denom }
+}
+
+/// Spearman rank correlation (Pearson on ranks).
+pub(crate) fn spearman(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    pearson(&rank(x), &rank(y))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rank_no_ties() {
+        let ranks = rank(&[30.0, 10.0, 20.0]);
+        assert_eq!(ranks, vec![3.0, 1.0, 2.0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rank_with_ties() {
+        let ranks = rank(&[10.0, 20.0, 20.0, 30.0]);
+        assert_eq!(ranks, vec![1.0, 2.5, 2.5, 4.0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn perfect_positive_correlation() {
+        let x = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0];
+        let y = vec![2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0];
+        let r = spearman(&x, &y);
+        assert!((r - 1.0).abs() < 1e-10);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn perfect_negative_correlation() {
+        let x = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0];
+        let y = vec![10.0, 8.0, 6.0, 4.0, 2.0];
+        let r = spearman(&x, &y);
+        assert!((r + 1.0).abs() < 1e-10);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn zero_variance_returns_zero() {
+        let x = vec![5.0, 5.0, 5.0];
+        let y = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0];
+        assert!(spearman(&x, &y).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+}

src/kde/multivariate.rs

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 //! parameter independently, the multivariate KDE models the joint distribution
 //! to better capture correlations between parameters.
 
-use rand::Rng;
+use rand::{Rng, RngExt};
 
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 

src/kde/univariate.rs

@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 //! This module provides a Gaussian kernel density estimator used by the TPE
 //! sampler to model probability distributions over good and bad trial regions.
 
-use rand::Rng;
+use rand::{Rng, RngExt};
 
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
 

src/lib.rs

@@ -17,6 +17,9 @@
 //! - **Random Search** - Simple random sampling for baseline comparisons
 //! - **TPE (Tree-Parzen Estimator)** - Bayesian optimization for efficient search
 //! - **Grid Search** - Exhaustive search over a specified parameter grid
+//! - **Sobol (QMC)** - Quasi-random sampling for better space coverage (requires `sobol` feature)
+//! - **CMA-ES** - Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy for continuous optimization (requires `cma-es` feature)
+//! - **BOHB** - Bayesian Optimization + `HyperBand` for budget-aware TPE sampling
 //!
 //! Additional features include:
 //!
@@ -28,24 +31,26 @@
 //! # Quick Start
 //!
 //! ```
-//! use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
-//! use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
+//! use optimizer::prelude::*;
 //!
 //! // Create a study with TPE sampler
 //! let sampler = TpeSampler::builder().seed(42).build().unwrap();
 //! let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 //!
+//! // Define parameter search space
+//! let x = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0).name("x");
+//!
 //! // Optimize x^2 for 20 trials
 //! study
-//!     .optimize_with_sampler(20, |trial| {
-//!         let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -10.0, 10.0)?;
-//!         Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(x * x)
+//!     .optimize(20, |trial| {
+//!         let x_val = x.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         Ok::<_, Error>(x_val * x_val)
 //!     })
 //!     .unwrap();
 //!
 //! // Get the best result
 //! let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
-//! println!("Best value: {} at x={:?}", best.value, best.params);
+//! println!("x = {}", best.get(&x).unwrap());
 //! ```
 //!
 //! # Creating a Study
@@ -69,29 +74,35 @@
 //!
 //! # Suggesting Parameters
 //!
-//! Within the objective function, use [`Trial`] to suggest parameter values:
+//! Within the objective function, use parameter types to suggest values:
 //!
 //! ```
+//! use optimizer::parameter::{BoolParam, CategoricalParam, FloatParam, IntParam, Parameter};
 //! use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
 //!
 //! let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
 //!
+//! // Define parameter search spaces
+//! let x_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+//! let lr_param = FloatParam::new(1e-5, 1e-1).log_scale();
+//! let step_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0).step(0.1);
+//! let n_param = IntParam::new(1, 10);
+//! let batch_param = IntParam::new(16, 256).log_scale();
+//! let units_param = IntParam::new(32, 512).step(32);
+//! let flag_param = BoolParam::new();
+//! let optimizer_param = CategoricalParam::new(vec!["sgd", "adam", "rmsprop"]);
+//!
 //! study
 //!     .optimize(10, |trial| {
-//!         // Float parameters
-//!         let x = trial.suggest_float("x", 0.0, 1.0)?;
-//!         let lr = trial.suggest_float_log("learning_rate", 1e-5, 1e-1)?;
-//!         let step = trial.suggest_float_step("step", 0.0, 1.0, 0.1)?;
+//!         let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         let lr = lr_param.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         let step = step_param.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         let n = n_param.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         let batch = batch_param.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         let units = units_param.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         let flag = flag_param.suggest(trial)?;
+//!         let optimizer = optimizer_param.suggest(trial)?;
 //!
-//!         // Integer parameters
-//!         let n = trial.suggest_int("n_layers", 1, 10)?;
-//!         let batch = trial.suggest_int_log("batch_size", 16, 256)?;
-//!         let units = trial.suggest_int_step("units", 32, 512, 32)?;
-//!
-//!         // Categorical parameters
-//!         let optimizer = trial.suggest_categorical("optimizer", &["sgd", "adam", "rmsprop"])?;
-//!
-//!         // Return objective value
 //!         Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(x * n as f64)
 //!     })
 //!     .unwrap();
@@ -147,35 +158,130 @@
 //!
 //! ```ignore
 //! use optimizer::{Study, Direction};
+//! use optimizer::parameter::{FloatParam, Parameter};
+//!
+//! let x_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
 //!
 //! // Sequential async
-//! study.optimize_async(10, |mut trial| async move {
-//!     let x = trial.suggest_float("x", 0.0, 1.0)?;
-//!     Ok((trial, x * x))
+//! study.optimize_async(10, |mut trial| {
+//!     let x_param = x_param.clone();
+//!     async move {
+//!         let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+//!         Ok((trial, x * x))
+//!     }
 //! }).await?;
 //!
 //! // Parallel with bounded concurrency
-//! study.optimize_parallel(10, 4, |mut trial| async move {
-//!     let x = trial.suggest_float("x", 0.0, 1.0)?;
-//!     Ok((trial, x * x))
+//! study.optimize_parallel(10, 4, |mut trial| {
+//!     let x_param = x_param.clone();
+//!     async move {
+//!         let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+//!         Ok((trial, x * x))
+//!     }
 //! }).await?;
 //! ```
 //!
 //! # Feature Flags
 //!
 //! - `async`: Enable async optimization methods (requires tokio)
+//! - `derive`: Enable `#[derive(Categorical)]` for enum parameters
+//! - `serde`: Enable `Serialize`/`Deserialize` on public types and `Study::save()`/`Study::load()`
+//! - `sobol`: Enable the Sobol quasi-random sampler for better space coverage
+//! - `cma-es`: Enable the CMA-ES sampler for continuous optimization
+//! - `tracing`: Emit structured log events via the [`tracing`](https://docs.rs/tracing) crate at key optimization points
+
+/// Emit a `tracing::info!` event when the `tracing` feature is enabled.
+/// No-op otherwise.
+#[cfg(feature = "tracing")]
+macro_rules! trace_info {
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => { tracing::info!($($arg)*) };
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "tracing"))]
+macro_rules! trace_info {
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => {};
+}
+
+/// Emit a `tracing::debug!` event when the `tracing` feature is enabled.
+/// No-op otherwise.
+#[cfg(feature = "tracing")]
+macro_rules! trace_debug {
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => { tracing::debug!($($arg)*) };
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(feature = "tracing"))]
+macro_rules! trace_debug {
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => {};
+}
 
 mod distribution;
 mod error;
+mod importance;
 mod kde;
 mod param;
+pub mod parameter;
+pub mod pruner;
 pub mod sampler;
 mod study;
 mod trial;
 mod types;
 
-pub use error::{Error, Result};
+pub use error::{Error, Result, TrialPruned};
+#[cfg(feature = "derive")]
+pub use optimizer_derive::Categorical;
 pub use param::ParamValue;
+pub use parameter::{
+    BoolParam, Categorical, CategoricalParam, EnumParam, FloatParam, IntParam, ParamId, Parameter,
+};
+pub use pruner::{
+    HyperbandPruner, MedianPruner, NopPruner, PatientPruner, PercentilePruner, Pruner,
+    SuccessiveHalvingPruner, ThresholdPruner, WilcoxonPruner,
+};
+pub use sampler::CompletedTrial;
+pub use sampler::bohb::BohbSampler;
+#[cfg(feature = "cma-es")]
+pub use sampler::cma_es::CmaEsSampler;
+pub use sampler::grid::GridSearchSampler;
+pub use sampler::random::RandomSampler;
+#[cfg(feature = "sobol")]
+pub use sampler::sobol::SobolSampler;
+pub use sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
 pub use study::Study;
-pub use trial::{SuggestableRange, Trial};
+#[cfg(feature = "serde")]
+pub use study::StudySnapshot;
+pub use trial::{AttrValue, Trial};
 pub use types::{Direction, TrialState};
+
+/// Convenient wildcard import for the most common types.
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::prelude::*;
+/// ```
+pub mod prelude {
+    #[cfg(feature = "derive")]
+    pub use optimizer_derive::Categorical as DeriveCategory;
+
+    pub use crate::error::{Error, Result, TrialPruned};
+    pub use crate::param::ParamValue;
+    pub use crate::parameter::{
+        BoolParam, Categorical, CategoricalParam, EnumParam, FloatParam, IntParam, Parameter,
+    };
+    pub use crate::pruner::{
+        HyperbandPruner, MedianPruner, NopPruner, PatientPruner, PercentilePruner, Pruner,
+        SuccessiveHalvingPruner, ThresholdPruner,
+    };
+    pub use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+    pub use crate::sampler::bohb::BohbSampler;
+    #[cfg(feature = "cma-es")]
+    pub use crate::sampler::cma_es::CmaEsSampler;
+    pub use crate::sampler::grid::GridSearchSampler;
+    pub use crate::sampler::random::RandomSampler;
+    #[cfg(feature = "sobol")]
+    pub use crate::sampler::sobol::SobolSampler;
+    pub use crate::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
+    pub use crate::study::Study;
+    #[cfg(feature = "serde")]
+    pub use crate::study::StudySnapshot;
+    pub use crate::trial::{AttrValue, Trial};
+    pub use crate::types::Direction;
+}

src/param.rs

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 /// For categorical parameters, the `Categorical` variant stores
 /// the index into the choices array.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub enum ParamValue {
     /// A floating-point parameter value.
     Float(f64),
@@ -14,3 +15,13 @@ pub enum ParamValue {
     /// A categorical parameter value, stored as an index into the choices array.
     Categorical(usize),
 }
+
+impl core::fmt::Display for ParamValue {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut core::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> core::fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::Float(v) => write!(f, "{v}"),
+            Self::Int(v) => write!(f, "{v}"),
+            Self::Categorical(v) => write!(f, "category({v})"),
+        }
+    }
+}

src/pruner/hyperband.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,559 @@
+use core::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+use super::Pruner;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+use crate::types::{Direction, TrialState};
+
+/// Hyperband pruner that manages multiple Successive Halving brackets.
+///
+/// Hyperband addresses SHA's sensitivity to the `min_resource` choice by
+/// running multiple brackets, each with a different tradeoff between the
+/// number of configurations and the starting budget:
+///
+/// - Bracket 0: many trials, very small starting budget (aggressive pruning)
+/// - Bracket 1: fewer trials, larger starting budget (moderate pruning)
+/// - ...
+/// - Bracket `s_max`: few trials, full budget (no pruning)
+///
+/// Trials are assigned to brackets in round-robin fashion. Each bracket
+/// runs SHA with its own `min_resource` and rung schedule.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::Direction;
+/// use optimizer::pruner::HyperbandPruner;
+///
+/// let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new()
+///     .min_resource(1)
+///     .max_resource(81)
+///     .reduction_factor(3)
+///     .direction(Direction::Minimize);
+/// ```
+pub struct HyperbandPruner {
+    min_resource: u64,
+    max_resource: u64,
+    reduction_factor: u64,
+    direction: Direction,
+    /// Tracks which bracket each trial belongs to.
+    trial_brackets: Mutex<HashMap<u64, usize>>,
+    /// Counter for round-robin bracket assignment.
+    next_bracket: AtomicU64,
+}
+
+impl HyperbandPruner {
+    /// Create a new `HyperbandPruner` with default parameters.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults: `min_resource=1`, `max_resource=81`, `reduction_factor=3`,
+    /// `direction=Minimize`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            min_resource: 1,
+            max_resource: 81,
+            reduction_factor: 3,
+            direction: Direction::Minimize,
+            trial_brackets: Mutex::new(HashMap::new()),
+            next_bracket: AtomicU64::new(0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the minimum resource (budget) per trial.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `r` is 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn min_resource(mut self, r: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(r > 0, "min_resource must be > 0, got {r}");
+        self.min_resource = r;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum resource (budget) per trial.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `r` is 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn max_resource(mut self, r: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(r > 0, "max_resource must be > 0, got {r}");
+        self.max_resource = r;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the reduction factor (eta). At each rung, the top 1/eta trials survive.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `eta` is less than 2.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn reduction_factor(mut self, eta: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(eta >= 2, "reduction_factor must be >= 2, got {eta}");
+        self.reduction_factor = eta;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the optimization direction.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn direction(mut self, d: Direction) -> Self {
+        self.direction = d;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Compute `s_max = floor(log(max_resource / min_resource) / log(eta))`.
+    #[allow(
+        clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+        clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+        clippy::cast_sign_loss
+    )]
+    fn s_max(&self) -> u64 {
+        let eta = self.reduction_factor as f64;
+        let ratio = self.max_resource as f64 / self.min_resource as f64;
+        (ratio.ln() / eta.ln()).floor() as u64
+    }
+
+    /// Compute the rung steps for a given bracket `s`.
+    ///
+    /// For bracket `s`, the starting resource is `max_resource / eta^(s_max - s)`,
+    /// and rungs are spaced at powers of eta from there up to `max_resource`.
+    #[allow(
+        clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+        clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+        clippy::cast_sign_loss
+    )]
+    fn rung_steps_for_bracket(&self, bracket: usize) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let s_max = self.s_max();
+        let eta = self.reduction_factor as f64;
+
+        // Starting resource for this bracket
+        let exponent = s_max.saturating_sub(bracket as u64);
+        let min_resource_bracket =
+            (self.max_resource as f64 / eta.powi(exponent as i32)).ceil() as u64;
+
+        let mut steps = Vec::new();
+        let mut rung: u32 = 0;
+        while let Some(power) = self.reduction_factor.checked_pow(rung) {
+            let step = min_resource_bracket.saturating_mul(power);
+            if step > self.max_resource {
+                break;
+            }
+            steps.push(step);
+            rung += 1;
+        }
+        steps
+    }
+
+    /// Assign a trial to a bracket (round-robin) and return the bracket index.
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_possible_truncation)]
+    fn assign_bracket(&self, trial_id: u64) -> usize {
+        let n_brackets = (self.s_max() + 1) as usize;
+        let mut map = self.trial_brackets.lock().expect("lock poisoned");
+        *map.entry(trial_id).or_insert_with(|| {
+            let idx = self.next_bracket.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+            (idx as usize) % n_brackets
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for HyperbandPruner {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+impl Pruner for HyperbandPruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        trial_id: u64,
+        step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        let bracket = self.assign_bracket(trial_id);
+        let rungs = self.rung_steps_for_bracket(bracket);
+
+        // Find the highest rung step <= current step
+        let Some(&rung_step) = rungs.iter().rev().find(|&&r| r <= step) else {
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        // Never prune at the last rung (full budget)
+        if rung_step >= self.max_resource {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Get the current trial's value at this rung step
+        let current_value =
+            if let Some(&(_, v)) = intermediate_values.iter().find(|(s, _)| *s == rung_step) {
+                v
+            } else if let Some(&(_, v)) = intermediate_values
+                .iter()
+                .rev()
+                .find(|(s, _)| *s <= rung_step)
+            {
+                v
+            } else {
+                return false;
+            };
+
+        self.is_pruned_at_rung(current_value, rung_step, bracket, completed_trials)
+    }
+}
+
+impl HyperbandPruner {
+    /// Determine whether a trial should be pruned at the given rung within its bracket.
+    ///
+    /// Only compares against other trials in the same bracket.
+    #[allow(
+        clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+        clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+        clippy::cast_sign_loss
+    )]
+    fn is_pruned_at_rung(
+        &self,
+        current_value: f64,
+        rung_step: u64,
+        bracket: usize,
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        let eta = self.reduction_factor as usize;
+
+        // Collect values at this rung step from trials in the same bracket
+        let map = self.trial_brackets.lock().expect("lock poisoned");
+        let mut values_at_rung: Vec<f64> = completed_trials
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|t| t.state == TrialState::Complete || t.state == TrialState::Pruned)
+            .filter(|t| map.get(&t.id).copied() == Some(bracket))
+            .filter_map(|t| {
+                t.intermediate_values
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|(s, _)| *s == rung_step)
+                    .map(|(_, v)| *v)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        drop(map);
+
+        // Need at least eta trials to make a meaningful comparison
+        if values_at_rung.len() < eta {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        values_at_rung.push(current_value);
+
+        values_at_rung
+            .sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(core::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+        if self.direction == Direction::Maximize {
+            values_at_rung.reverse();
+        }
+
+        let n_keep = (values_at_rung.len() as f64 / eta as f64).ceil() as usize;
+        let threshold_idx = n_keep.max(1) - 1;
+        let threshold = values_at_rung[threshold_idx];
+
+        match self.direction {
+            Direction::Minimize => current_value > threshold,
+            Direction::Maximize => current_value < threshold,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+#[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn make_trial(id: u64, values: &[(u64, f64)]) -> CompletedTrial {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        use crate::parameter::ParamId;
+
+        CompletedTrial::with_intermediate_values(
+            id,
+            HashMap::<ParamId, crate::ParamValue>::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            0.0,
+            values.to_vec(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_pruned_trial(id: u64, values: &[(u64, f64)]) -> CompletedTrial {
+        let mut t = make_trial(id, values);
+        t.state = TrialState::Pruned;
+        t
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn s_max_default() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new();
+        // s_max = floor(ln(81/1) / ln(3)) = floor(4.0) = 4
+        assert_eq!(pruner.s_max(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn s_max_custom() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new()
+            .min_resource(1)
+            .max_resource(16)
+            .reduction_factor(2);
+        // s_max = floor(ln(16) / ln(2)) = floor(4.0) = 4
+        assert_eq!(pruner.s_max(), 4);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn bracket_count() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new();
+        // s_max=4, so brackets 0..=4 → 5 brackets
+        assert_eq!(pruner.s_max() + 1, 5);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rung_steps_bracket_0_default() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new();
+        // Bracket 0: min_resource_bracket = ceil(81 / 3^4) = ceil(81/81) = 1
+        // Rungs: 1, 3, 9, 27, 81
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(0), vec![1, 3, 9, 27, 81]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rung_steps_bracket_2_default() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new();
+        // Bracket 2: min_resource_bracket = ceil(81 / 3^(4-2)) = ceil(81/9) = 9
+        // Rungs: 9, 27, 81
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(2), vec![9, 27, 81]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rung_steps_bracket_4_default() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new();
+        // Bracket 4 (s_max): min_resource_bracket = ceil(81 / 3^0) = 81
+        // Rungs: 81 only (no pruning, full budget)
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(4), vec![81]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rung_steps_eta2() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new()
+            .min_resource(1)
+            .max_resource(16)
+            .reduction_factor(2);
+        // s_max = 4
+        // Bracket 0: min=ceil(16/2^4)=1, rungs: 1,2,4,8,16
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(0), vec![1, 2, 4, 8, 16]);
+        // Bracket 2: min=ceil(16/2^2)=4, rungs: 4,8,16
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(2), vec![4, 8, 16]);
+        // Bracket 4: min=16, rungs: 16
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(4), vec![16]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn round_robin_bracket_assignment() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new(); // 5 brackets (0..=4)
+        // Trials get assigned in round-robin: 0→0, 1→1, 2→2, 3→3, 4→4, 5→0, ...
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(100), 0);
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(101), 1);
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(102), 2);
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(103), 3);
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(104), 4);
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(105), 0); // wraps around
+
+        // Repeated calls for same trial return same bracket
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(100), 0);
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(103), 3);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_before_first_rung() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+        // Assign trial 0 to bracket 0 (rungs: 1, 3, 9, 27, 81)
+        pruner.assign_bracket(0);
+
+        // Register completed trials in bracket 0
+        let mut completed = Vec::new();
+        for i in 1..=9 {
+            pruner.assign_bracket(i);
+            completed.push(make_trial(i, &[(1, i as f64)]));
+        }
+
+        // Trial at step 0 (before rung 1) → don't prune
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[(0, 100.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_at_max_resource() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Put all trials in bracket 0
+        let mut completed = Vec::new();
+        for i in 0..9 {
+            pruner.assign_bracket(i);
+            completed.push(make_trial(i, &[(81, (i + 1) as f64)]));
+        }
+
+        let trial_id = 9;
+        pruner.assign_bracket(trial_id);
+        // At max_resource (81), never prune
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(trial_id, 81, &[(81, 100.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prune_worst_in_bracket_minimize() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Force all trials into bracket 0 by assigning sequentially
+        // With 5 brackets, trials 0,5,10,... go to bracket 0
+        let bracket_0_ids: Vec<u64> = (0..5).map(|i| i * 5).collect();
+        // Assign all 25 trial IDs to fill brackets
+        for i in 0..25 {
+            pruner.assign_bracket(i);
+        }
+
+        // Create 9 completed trials in bracket 0 at rung step=1
+        let completed: Vec<_> = bracket_0_ids
+            .iter()
+            .take(3)
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(idx, &id)| make_trial(id, &[(1, (idx + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // Trial 25 → bracket 0 (25 % 5 == 0)
+        let test_id = 25;
+        pruner.assign_bracket(test_id);
+        assert_eq!(pruner.assign_bracket(test_id), 0);
+
+        // 3 completed + 1 current = 4. eta=3. ceil(4/3)=2. Threshold = 2.0
+        // Value 2.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 2.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 3.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 3.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prune_worst_in_bracket_maximize() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new().direction(Direction::Maximize);
+
+        // Assign trials so they end up in bracket 0
+        for i in 0..25 {
+            pruner.assign_bracket(i);
+        }
+
+        let completed: Vec<_> = [0u64, 5, 10]
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .map(|(idx, &id)| make_trial(id, &[(1, (idx + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        let test_id = 25;
+        pruner.assign_bracket(test_id);
+
+        // For maximize, best = highest. Values: 1,2,3 + current
+        // Value 2.0 → keep (threshold = 2.0 when sorted desc: 3,2,current,1)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 2.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 1.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 0.5)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn different_brackets_have_different_aggressiveness() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new()
+            .min_resource(1)
+            .max_resource(81)
+            .reduction_factor(3)
+            .direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        let rungs_0 = pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(0);
+        let rungs_2 = pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(2);
+        let rungs_4 = pruner.rung_steps_for_bracket(4);
+
+        // Bracket 0 has the most rungs (most aggressive)
+        assert!(rungs_0.len() > rungs_2.len());
+        // Bracket 4 has just 1 rung (no pruning)
+        assert_eq!(rungs_4.len(), 1);
+        // Bracket 0 starts earliest
+        assert!(rungs_0[0] < rungs_2[0]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn trials_in_different_brackets_independent() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Assign trials: bracket 0 gets IDs 0,5,10,15,20
+        for i in 0..25 {
+            pruner.assign_bracket(i);
+        }
+
+        // Bracket 0 trials: bad values at rung step=1
+        let bracket_0_trials: Vec<_> = [0u64, 5, 10]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&id| make_trial(id, &[(1, 100.0)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // Bracket 1 trials: good values at rung step=1
+        let bracket_1_trials: Vec<_> = [1u64, 6, 11]
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&id| make_trial(id, &[(1, 1.0)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        let mut all_trials = bracket_0_trials;
+        all_trials.extend(bracket_1_trials);
+
+        // A new bracket-0 trial with value 50 should be compared against
+        // bracket-0 peers (100,100,100), not bracket-1 peers (1,1,1)
+        let test_id = 25; // bracket 0
+        pruner.assign_bracket(test_id);
+        // 3 peers at 100.0 + current at 50.0. ceil(4/3)=2. Sorted: 50,100,100,100. Threshold=100.0
+        // Value 50.0 < 100.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 50.0)], &all_trials));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn includes_pruned_trials() {
+        let pruner = HyperbandPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        for i in 0..25 {
+            pruner.assign_bracket(i);
+        }
+
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_trial(0, &[(1, 1.0)]),
+            make_pruned_trial(5, &[(1, 8.0)]),
+            make_pruned_trial(10, &[(1, 9.0)]),
+        ];
+
+        let test_id = 25;
+        pruner.assign_bracket(test_id);
+
+        // Values: 1.0, 8.0, 9.0 + current. eta=3.
+        // Value 1.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 1.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 5.0 → prune (sorted: 1,5,8,9 → keep ceil(4/3)=2 → threshold=5.0, 5.0 not > 5.0 → keep)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 5.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 6.0 → prune (sorted: 1,6,8,9 → threshold=6.0, 6.0 not > 6.0 → keep)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 6.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 9.5 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(test_id, 1, &[(1, 9.5)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "min_resource must be > 0")]
+    fn rejects_zero_min_resource() {
+        let _ = HyperbandPruner::new().min_resource(0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "max_resource must be > 0")]
+    fn rejects_zero_max_resource() {
+        let _ = HyperbandPruner::new().max_resource(0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "reduction_factor must be >= 2")]
+    fn rejects_reduction_factor_one() {
+        let _ = HyperbandPruner::new().reduction_factor(1);
+    }
+}

src/pruner/median.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
+use super::Pruner;
+use super::percentile::compute_percentile;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+use crate::types::{Direction, TrialState};
+
+/// Prune trials that are performing worse than the median of completed trials
+/// at the same step.
+///
+/// This is the most commonly used pruner. It compares the current trial's
+/// intermediate value at each step with the median of all completed trials'
+/// values at that same step.
+///
+/// Equivalent to `PercentilePruner::new(50.0, direction)`.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::Direction;
+/// use optimizer::pruner::MedianPruner;
+///
+/// // Prune trials worse than median when minimizing, after 5 warmup steps
+/// let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize)
+///     .n_warmup_steps(5)
+///     .n_min_trials(3);
+/// ```
+pub struct MedianPruner {
+    /// The optimization direction.
+    direction: Direction,
+    /// Don't prune in the first N steps (let the trial warm up).
+    n_warmup_steps: u64,
+    /// Require at least N completed trials before pruning.
+    n_min_trials: usize,
+}
+
+impl MedianPruner {
+    /// Create a new `MedianPruner` for the given optimization direction.
+    ///
+    /// By default, `n_warmup_steps` is 0 and `n_min_trials` is 1.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(direction: Direction) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            direction,
+            n_warmup_steps: 0,
+            n_min_trials: 1,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the number of warmup steps. No pruning occurs before this step.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn n_warmup_steps(mut self, n: u64) -> Self {
+        self.n_warmup_steps = n;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the minimum number of completed trials required before pruning.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn n_min_trials(mut self, n: usize) -> Self {
+        self.n_min_trials = n;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl Pruner for MedianPruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        _trial_id: u64,
+        step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        // 1. Don't prune during warmup
+        if step < self.n_warmup_steps {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Get the current trial's latest value
+        let Some(&(_, current_value)) = intermediate_values.last() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        // 2. Collect values at this step from completed (non-pruned) trials
+        let mut values_at_step: Vec<f64> = completed_trials
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|t| t.state == TrialState::Complete)
+            .filter_map(|t| {
+                t.intermediate_values
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|(s, _)| *s == step)
+                    .map(|(_, v)| *v)
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // 3. Not enough trials
+        if values_at_step.len() < self.n_min_trials {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // 4. Compute median (50th percentile)
+        let median = compute_percentile(&mut values_at_step, 50.0);
+
+        // 5. Compare against median based on direction
+        match self.direction {
+            Direction::Minimize => current_value > median,
+            Direction::Maximize => current_value < median,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_median_odd() {
+        assert!((compute_percentile(&mut [3.0, 1.0, 2.0], 50.0) - 2.0).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_median_even() {
+        assert!((compute_percentile(&mut [4.0, 1.0, 3.0, 2.0], 50.0) - 2.5).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_median_single() {
+        assert!((compute_percentile(&mut [5.0], 50.0) - 5.0).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+}

src/pruner/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+//! Pruner trait and implementations for trial pruning.
+//!
+//! Pruners decide whether to stop (prune) a trial early based on its
+//! intermediate values compared to other trials. This is useful for
+//! discarding unpromising trials before they complete, saving compute.
+
+mod hyperband;
+mod median;
+mod nop;
+mod patient;
+pub(crate) mod percentile;
+mod successive_halving;
+mod threshold;
+mod wilcoxon;
+
+pub use hyperband::HyperbandPruner;
+pub use median::MedianPruner;
+pub use nop::NopPruner;
+pub use patient::PatientPruner;
+pub use percentile::PercentilePruner;
+pub use successive_halving::SuccessiveHalvingPruner;
+pub use threshold::ThresholdPruner;
+pub use wilcoxon::WilcoxonPruner;
+
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+
+/// Trait for pluggable trial pruning strategies.
+///
+/// Pruners are consulted after each intermediate value is reported to
+/// decide whether the trial should be stopped early. The trait requires
+/// `Send + Sync` to support concurrent and async optimization.
+///
+/// # Implementing a custom pruner
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::pruner::Pruner;
+/// use optimizer::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+///
+/// struct MyPruner {
+///     threshold: f64,
+/// }
+///
+/// impl Pruner for MyPruner {
+///     fn should_prune(
+///         &self,
+///         _trial_id: u64,
+///         _step: u64,
+///         intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+///         _completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+///     ) -> bool {
+///         // Prune if the latest value exceeds the threshold
+///         intermediate_values
+///             .last()
+///             .is_some_and(|&(_, v)| v > self.threshold)
+///     }
+/// }
+/// ```
+pub trait Pruner: Send + Sync {
+    /// Decide whether to prune a trial at the given step.
+    ///
+    /// # Arguments
+    ///
+    /// * `trial_id` - The current trial's ID.
+    /// * `step` - The step at which the intermediate value was reported.
+    /// * `intermediate_values` - All `(step, value)` pairs reported so far for this trial.
+    /// * `completed_trials` - History of all completed trials (for comparison).
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        trial_id: u64,
+        step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool;
+}

src/pruner/nop.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+use super::Pruner;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+
+/// A pruner that never prunes. This is the default when no pruner is configured.
+pub struct NopPruner;
+
+impl Pruner for NopPruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        _trial_id: u64,
+        _step: u64,
+        _intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        _completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}

src/pruner/patient.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,160 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::sync::Mutex;
+
+use super::Pruner;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+
+/// Wraps another pruner and adds a patience window.
+///
+/// The inner pruner must recommend pruning for `patience` consecutive
+/// steps before this pruner actually prunes the trial. This is useful
+/// to prevent premature pruning when intermediate values are noisy.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::pruner::{PatientPruner, ThresholdPruner};
+///
+/// // Only prune after the threshold pruner recommends pruning 3 times in a row
+/// let inner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(100.0);
+/// let pruner = PatientPruner::new(inner, 3);
+/// ```
+pub struct PatientPruner {
+    inner: Box<dyn Pruner>,
+    patience: u64,
+    /// Track consecutive prune recommendations per trial.
+    consecutive_counts: Mutex<HashMap<u64, u64>>,
+}
+
+impl PatientPruner {
+    /// Create a new `PatientPruner` wrapping the given inner pruner.
+    ///
+    /// The inner pruner must recommend pruning for `patience` consecutive
+    /// calls before this pruner returns `true`.
+    pub fn new(inner: impl Pruner + 'static, patience: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Box::new(inner),
+            patience,
+            consecutive_counts: Mutex::new(HashMap::new()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Pruner for PatientPruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        trial_id: u64,
+        step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        let inner_says_prune =
+            self.inner
+                .should_prune(trial_id, step, intermediate_values, completed_trials);
+        let mut counts = self.consecutive_counts.lock().expect("lock poisoned");
+        let count = counts.entry(trial_id).or_insert(0);
+        if inner_says_prune {
+            *count += 1;
+            *count >= self.patience
+        } else {
+            *count = 0;
+            false
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::pruner::ThresholdPruner;
+
+    /// A test pruner that always returns the given value.
+    struct ConstPruner(bool);
+
+    impl Pruner for ConstPruner {
+        fn should_prune(
+            &self,
+            _trial_id: u64,
+            _step: u64,
+            _intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+            _completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+        ) -> bool {
+            self.0
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// A pruner that returns values from a sequence.
+    struct SequencePruner(Mutex<Vec<bool>>);
+
+    impl Pruner for SequencePruner {
+        fn should_prune(
+            &self,
+            _trial_id: u64,
+            _step: u64,
+            _intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+            _completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+        ) -> bool {
+            self.0.lock().expect("lock poisoned").remove(0)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn call(pruner: &PatientPruner, trial_id: u64, step: u64) -> bool {
+        pruner.should_prune(trial_id, step, &[(step, 0.0)], &[])
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn patience_1_behaves_like_inner() {
+        let pruner = PatientPruner::new(ConstPruner(true), 1);
+        assert!(call(&pruner, 0, 0));
+        assert!(call(&pruner, 0, 1));
+
+        let pruner = PatientPruner::new(ConstPruner(false), 1);
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 0));
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 1));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn patience_3_requires_consecutive_recommendations() {
+        let pruner = PatientPruner::new(ConstPruner(true), 3);
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 0)); // count=1
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 1)); // count=2
+        assert!(call(&pruner, 0, 2)); // count=3 → prune
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn counter_resets_on_no_prune() {
+        // Sequence: prune, prune, no-prune, prune, prune, prune
+        let seq = vec![true, true, false, true, true, true];
+        let pruner = PatientPruner::new(SequencePruner(Mutex::new(seq)), 3);
+
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 0)); // count=1
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 1)); // count=2
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 2)); // reset → count=0
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 3)); // count=1
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 4)); // count=2
+        assert!(call(&pruner, 0, 5)); // count=3 → prune
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn independent_per_trial() {
+        let pruner = PatientPruner::new(ConstPruner(true), 2);
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 0, 0)); // trial 0: count=1
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 1, 0)); // trial 1: count=1
+        assert!(call(&pruner, 0, 1)); // trial 0: count=2 → prune
+        assert!(!call(&pruner, 2, 0)); // trial 2: count=1
+        assert!(call(&pruner, 1, 1)); // trial 1: count=2 → prune
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn works_with_threshold_pruner() {
+        let inner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(10.0);
+        let pruner = PatientPruner::new(inner, 2);
+
+        // Value below threshold → inner says no
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[(0, 5.0)], &[]));
+        // Value above threshold → inner says yes, count=1
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 1, &[(0, 5.0), (1, 15.0)], &[]));
+        // Value above threshold again → count=2 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(0, 2, &[(0, 5.0), (1, 15.0), (2, 20.0)], &[]));
+    }
+}

src/pruner/percentile.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,294 @@
+use super::Pruner;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+use crate::types::{Direction, TrialState};
+
+/// Prune trials that are not in the top `percentile`% of completed trials
+/// at the same training step.
+///
+/// `PercentilePruner::new(50.0, direction)` is equivalent to `MedianPruner`.
+/// `PercentilePruner::new(25.0, direction)` keeps only the top 25% of trials.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::Direction;
+/// use optimizer::pruner::PercentilePruner;
+///
+/// // Keep only the top 25% of trials (aggressive pruning)
+/// let pruner = PercentilePruner::new(25.0, Direction::Minimize)
+///     .n_warmup_steps(5)
+///     .n_min_trials(3);
+/// ```
+pub struct PercentilePruner {
+    /// Keep trials in the top `percentile`%. Range: (0.0, 100.0).
+    percentile: f64,
+    /// Don't prune in the first N steps (let the trial warm up).
+    n_warmup_steps: u64,
+    /// Require at least N completed trials before pruning.
+    n_min_trials: usize,
+    /// The optimization direction.
+    direction: Direction,
+}
+
+impl PercentilePruner {
+    /// Create a new `PercentilePruner` for the given percentile and direction.
+    ///
+    /// The `percentile` value must be in `(0.0, 100.0)`.
+    /// A percentile of 50.0 is equivalent to median pruning.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `percentile` is not in `(0.0, 100.0)`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(percentile: f64, direction: Direction) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            percentile > 0.0 && percentile < 100.0,
+            "percentile must be in (0.0, 100.0), got {percentile}"
+        );
+        Self {
+            percentile,
+            n_warmup_steps: 0,
+            n_min_trials: 1,
+            direction,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the number of warmup steps. No pruning occurs before this step.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn n_warmup_steps(mut self, n: u64) -> Self {
+        self.n_warmup_steps = n;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the minimum number of completed trials required before pruning.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn n_min_trials(mut self, n: usize) -> Self {
+        self.n_min_trials = n;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl Pruner for PercentilePruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        _trial_id: u64,
+        step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        // 1. Don't prune during warmup
+        if step < self.n_warmup_steps {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Get the current trial's latest value
+        let Some(&(_, current_value)) = intermediate_values.last() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        // 2. Collect values at this step from completed (non-pruned) trials
+        let mut values_at_step: Vec<f64> = completed_trials
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|t| t.state == TrialState::Complete)
+            .filter_map(|t| {
+                t.intermediate_values
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|(s, _)| *s == step)
+                    .map(|(_, v)| *v)
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // 3. Not enough trials
+        if values_at_step.len() < self.n_min_trials {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // 4. Compute percentile threshold
+        let threshold = compute_percentile(&mut values_at_step, self.percentile);
+
+        // 5. Compare against threshold based on direction
+        match self.direction {
+            Direction::Minimize => current_value > threshold,
+            Direction::Maximize => current_value < threshold,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// Compute the given percentile of a non-empty slice. Sorts the slice in place.
+///
+/// Uses linear interpolation between the two nearest ranks.
+#[allow(
+    clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+    clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+    clippy::cast_sign_loss
+)]
+pub(crate) fn compute_percentile(values: &mut [f64], percentile: f64) -> f64 {
+    values.sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(core::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+    let len = values.len();
+    if len == 1 {
+        return values[0];
+    }
+    // Rank in [0, len-1] range
+    let rank = percentile / 100.0 * (len - 1) as f64;
+    let lower = rank.floor() as usize;
+    let upper = rank.ceil() as usize;
+    if lower == upper {
+        values[lower]
+    } else {
+        let frac = rank - lower as f64;
+        values[lower] * (1.0 - frac) + values[upper] * frac
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_percentile_median_odd() {
+        // Percentile 50 on odd-length slice = median
+        let val = compute_percentile(&mut [3.0, 1.0, 2.0], 50.0);
+        assert!((val - 2.0).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_percentile_median_even() {
+        // Percentile 50 on even-length slice = median (interpolated)
+        let val = compute_percentile(&mut [4.0, 1.0, 3.0, 2.0], 50.0);
+        assert!((val - 2.5).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_percentile_25() {
+        // [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], rank = 0.25 * 3 = 0.75
+        // interpolate: 1.0 * 0.25 + 2.0 * 0.75 = 1.75
+        let val = compute_percentile(&mut [4.0, 1.0, 3.0, 2.0], 25.0);
+        assert!((val - 1.75).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_percentile_75() {
+        // [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], rank = 0.75 * 3 = 2.25
+        // interpolate: 3.0 * 0.75 + 4.0 * 0.25 = 3.25
+        let val = compute_percentile(&mut [4.0, 1.0, 3.0, 2.0], 75.0);
+        assert!((val - 3.25).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn compute_percentile_single() {
+        let val = compute_percentile(&mut [5.0], 50.0);
+        assert!((val - 5.0).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "percentile must be in (0.0, 100.0)")]
+    fn new_rejects_zero() {
+        let _ = PercentilePruner::new(0.0, Direction::Minimize);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "percentile must be in (0.0, 100.0)")]
+    fn new_rejects_hundred() {
+        let _ = PercentilePruner::new(100.0, Direction::Minimize);
+    }
+
+    fn make_completed_trial(id: u64, values: &[(u64, f64)]) -> CompletedTrial {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        use crate::parameter::ParamId;
+
+        CompletedTrial::with_intermediate_values(
+            id,
+            HashMap::<ParamId, crate::ParamValue>::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            0.0,
+            values.to_vec(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn percentile_50_matches_median_behavior() {
+        let pruner = PercentilePruner::new(50.0, Direction::Minimize);
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_completed_trial(0, &[(0, 1.0), (1, 2.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(1, &[(0, 3.0), (1, 4.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(2, &[(0, 5.0), (1, 6.0)]),
+        ];
+        // Median at step 1 is 4.0
+        // Value 5.0 > 4.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(3, 1, &[(0, 3.0), (1, 5.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 3.0 < 4.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(3, 1, &[(0, 3.0), (1, 3.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn percentile_25_is_more_aggressive() {
+        let pruner_25 = PercentilePruner::new(25.0, Direction::Minimize);
+        let pruner_75 = PercentilePruner::new(75.0, Direction::Minimize);
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_completed_trial(0, &[(0, 1.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(1, &[(0, 2.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(2, &[(0, 3.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(3, &[(0, 4.0)]),
+        ];
+        // 25th percentile at step 0: 1.75
+        // 75th percentile at step 0: 3.25
+        // Value 2.5: above 25th (prune), below 75th (keep)
+        assert!(pruner_25.should_prune(4, 0, &[(0, 2.5)], &completed));
+        assert!(!pruner_75.should_prune(4, 0, &[(0, 2.5)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn warmup_prevents_pruning() {
+        let pruner = PercentilePruner::new(50.0, Direction::Minimize).n_warmup_steps(5);
+        let completed = vec![make_completed_trial(0, &[(0, 1.0)])];
+        // Step 3 < warmup 5 → no prune even with bad value
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 3, &[(3, 100.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn n_min_trials_prevents_pruning() {
+        let pruner = PercentilePruner::new(50.0, Direction::Minimize).n_min_trials(5);
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_completed_trial(0, &[(0, 1.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(1, &[(0, 2.0)]),
+        ];
+        // Only 2 trials, need 5 → no prune
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(2, 0, &[(0, 100.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maximize_direction() {
+        let pruner = PercentilePruner::new(50.0, Direction::Maximize);
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_completed_trial(0, &[(0, 1.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(1, &[(0, 3.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(2, &[(0, 5.0)]),
+        ];
+        // Median at step 0 is 3.0
+        // Value 2.0 < 3.0 → prune (maximize wants higher)
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(3, 0, &[(0, 2.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 4.0 > 3.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(3, 0, &[(0, 4.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn near_boundary_percentiles() {
+        let pruner_low = PercentilePruner::new(1.0, Direction::Minimize);
+        let pruner_high = PercentilePruner::new(99.0, Direction::Minimize);
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_completed_trial(0, &[(0, 1.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(1, &[(0, 2.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(2, &[(0, 3.0)]),
+            make_completed_trial(3, &[(0, 100.0)]),
+        ];
+        // Percentile 1 is very aggressive (threshold near 1.0)
+        // Value 1.5 should be pruned
+        assert!(pruner_low.should_prune(4, 0, &[(0, 1.5)], &completed));
+        // Percentile 99 is very lenient (threshold near 100.0)
+        // Value 50.0 should not be pruned
+        assert!(!pruner_high.should_prune(4, 0, &[(0, 50.0)], &completed));
+    }
+}

src/pruner/successive_halving.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,466 @@
+use super::Pruner;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+use crate::types::{Direction, TrialState};
+
+/// Successive Halving pruner based on the SHA algorithm.
+///
+/// Trials are evaluated at exponentially-spaced "rungs". At each rung,
+/// only the top 1/eta fraction of trials survive to the next rung.
+///
+/// For example, with `min_resource=1`, `max_resource=81`, `reduction_factor=3`:
+/// - Rung 0: evaluate at step 1, keep top 1/3
+/// - Rung 1: evaluate at step 3, keep top 1/3
+/// - Rung 2: evaluate at step 9, keep top 1/3
+/// - Rung 3: evaluate at step 27, keep top 1/3
+/// - Rung 4: evaluate at step 81 (full budget)
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::Direction;
+/// use optimizer::pruner::SuccessiveHalvingPruner;
+///
+/// let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new()
+///     .min_resource(1)
+///     .max_resource(81)
+///     .reduction_factor(3)
+///     .direction(Direction::Minimize);
+/// ```
+pub struct SuccessiveHalvingPruner {
+    min_resource: u64,
+    max_resource: u64,
+    reduction_factor: u64,
+    min_early_stopping_rate: u64,
+    direction: Direction,
+}
+
+impl SuccessiveHalvingPruner {
+    /// Create a new `SuccessiveHalvingPruner` with default parameters.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults: `min_resource=1`, `max_resource=81`, `reduction_factor=3`,
+    /// `min_early_stopping_rate=0`, `direction=Minimize`.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            min_resource: 1,
+            max_resource: 81,
+            reduction_factor: 3,
+            min_early_stopping_rate: 0,
+            direction: Direction::Minimize,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the minimum resource (budget) per trial.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `r` is 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn min_resource(mut self, r: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(r > 0, "min_resource must be > 0, got {r}");
+        self.min_resource = r;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the maximum resource (budget) per trial.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `r` is 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn max_resource(mut self, r: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(r > 0, "max_resource must be > 0, got {r}");
+        self.max_resource = r;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the reduction factor (eta). At each rung, the top 1/eta trials survive.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `eta` is less than 2.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn reduction_factor(mut self, eta: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(eta >= 2, "reduction_factor must be >= 2, got {eta}");
+        self.reduction_factor = eta;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the minimum early stopping rate. Skips the first N rungs.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn min_early_stopping_rate(mut self, n: u64) -> Self {
+        self.min_early_stopping_rate = n;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the optimization direction.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn direction(mut self, d: Direction) -> Self {
+        self.direction = d;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Compute the rung steps: `[min_resource * eta^(s), ...]` up to `max_resource`,
+    /// skipping the first `min_early_stopping_rate` rungs.
+    fn rung_steps(&self) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let eta = self.reduction_factor;
+        let mut steps = Vec::new();
+        let mut rung: u32 = 0;
+        while let Some(power) = eta.checked_pow(rung) {
+            let step = self.min_resource.saturating_mul(power);
+            if step > self.max_resource {
+                break;
+            }
+            if u64::from(rung) >= self.min_early_stopping_rate {
+                steps.push(step);
+            }
+            rung += 1;
+        }
+        steps
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for SuccessiveHalvingPruner {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+impl Pruner for SuccessiveHalvingPruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        _trial_id: u64,
+        step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        let rungs = self.rung_steps();
+
+        // Find the highest rung step <= current step
+        let Some(&rung_step) = rungs.iter().rev().find(|&&r| r <= step) else {
+            // No rung matches (before the first rung) → don't prune
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        // If this is the last rung (full budget), don't prune
+        if rung_step >= self.max_resource {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Get the current trial's value at this rung step
+        let Some(&(_, current_value)) = intermediate_values.iter().find(|(s, _)| *s == rung_step)
+        else {
+            // Trial hasn't reported a value at this exact rung step.
+            // Use the latest intermediate value at or before the rung step instead.
+            let Some(&(_, current_value)) = intermediate_values
+                .iter()
+                .rev()
+                .find(|(s, _)| *s <= rung_step)
+            else {
+                return false;
+            };
+            return self.is_pruned_at_rung(current_value, rung_step, completed_trials);
+        };
+
+        self.is_pruned_at_rung(current_value, rung_step, completed_trials)
+    }
+}
+
+impl SuccessiveHalvingPruner {
+    /// Determine whether a trial with `current_value` should be pruned at the given rung.
+    #[allow(
+        clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+        clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+        clippy::cast_sign_loss
+    )]
+    fn is_pruned_at_rung(
+        &self,
+        current_value: f64,
+        rung_step: u64,
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        let eta = self.reduction_factor as usize;
+
+        // Collect values at this rung step from all trials that reached it
+        let mut values_at_rung: Vec<f64> = completed_trials
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|t| t.state == TrialState::Complete || t.state == TrialState::Pruned)
+            .filter_map(|t| {
+                t.intermediate_values
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|(s, _)| *s == rung_step)
+                    .map(|(_, v)| *v)
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Need at least eta trials to make a meaningful comparison
+        // (with fewer trials, we can't determine the top 1/eta fraction)
+        if values_at_rung.len() < eta {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Include the current trial's value for ranking
+        values_at_rung.push(current_value);
+
+        // Sort based on direction: best values first
+        values_at_rung
+            .sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(core::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+        if self.direction == Direction::Maximize {
+            values_at_rung.reverse();
+        }
+
+        // Keep top 1/eta fraction
+        let n_keep = (values_at_rung.len() as f64 / eta as f64).ceil() as usize;
+        let threshold_idx = n_keep.max(1) - 1;
+        let threshold = values_at_rung[threshold_idx];
+
+        // Prune if current value is worse than the threshold
+        match self.direction {
+            Direction::Minimize => current_value > threshold,
+            Direction::Maximize => current_value < threshold,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+#[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn make_trial(id: u64, values: &[(u64, f64)]) -> CompletedTrial {
+        use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+        use crate::parameter::ParamId;
+
+        CompletedTrial::with_intermediate_values(
+            id,
+            HashMap::<ParamId, crate::ParamValue>::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            0.0,
+            values.to_vec(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn make_pruned_trial(id: u64, values: &[(u64, f64)]) -> CompletedTrial {
+        let mut t = make_trial(id, values);
+        t.state = TrialState::Pruned;
+        t
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rung_steps_default() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new();
+        let rungs = pruner.rung_steps();
+        // min=1, max=81, eta=3 → 1, 3, 9, 27, 81
+        assert_eq!(rungs, vec![1, 3, 9, 27, 81]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rung_steps_custom() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new()
+            .min_resource(2)
+            .max_resource(32)
+            .reduction_factor(2);
+        let rungs = pruner.rung_steps();
+        // 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
+        assert_eq!(rungs, vec![2, 4, 8, 16, 32]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rung_steps_with_early_stopping_rate() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().min_early_stopping_rate(2);
+        let rungs = pruner.rung_steps();
+        // Skip rung 0 (step=1) and rung 1 (step=3), keep rung 2+ (9, 27, 81)
+        assert_eq!(rungs, vec![9, 27, 81]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_before_first_rung() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new()
+            .min_resource(10)
+            .max_resource(100)
+            .reduction_factor(3);
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_trial(0, &[(5, 1.0)]),
+            make_trial(1, &[(5, 2.0)]),
+            make_trial(2, &[(5, 3.0)]),
+        ];
+        // Step 5 is before the first rung (10)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(3, 5, &[(5, 100.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_with_single_trial() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new();
+        let completed = vec![make_trial(0, &[(1, 5.0)]), make_trial(1, &[(1, 3.0)])];
+        // Only 2 completed trials at rung + 1 current = 3 total, threshold = ceil(3/3) = 1
+        // With eta=3, we need at least 3 completed trials
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(2, 1, &[(1, 10.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prune_worst_trials_at_rung() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // 9 completed trials at rung step=1, with values 1..=9
+        let completed: Vec<_> = (0..9)
+            .map(|i| make_trial(i, &[(1, (i + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // With eta=3, keep top 1/3. 10 total values → ceil(10/3) = 4 kept
+        // Best 4 values: 1, 2, 3, 4. Threshold = 4.0
+        // Value 3.0 → keep (in top 1/3)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(9, 1, &[(1, 3.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 5.0 → prune (not in top 1/3)
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(9, 1, &[(1, 5.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn top_fraction_survives() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // 6 completed trials at step=1
+        let completed: Vec<_> = (0..6)
+            .map(|i| make_trial(i, &[(1, (i + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // 7 total (6 + current). ceil(7/3) = 3 keep. Threshold = 3.0
+        // Value 2.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(6, 1, &[(1, 2.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 3.0 → keep (at threshold)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(6, 1, &[(1, 3.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 4.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(6, 1, &[(1, 4.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn maximize_direction() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().direction(Direction::Maximize);
+
+        let completed: Vec<_> = (0..6)
+            .map(|i| make_trial(i, &[(1, (i + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // 7 total. For maximize, best = highest. ceil(7/3)=3. Top 3: 6,5,4. Threshold=4.0
+        // Value 5.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(6, 1, &[(1, 5.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 4.0 → keep (at threshold)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(6, 1, &[(1, 4.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 3.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(6, 1, &[(1, 3.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reduction_factor_2() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new()
+            .reduction_factor(2)
+            .min_resource(1)
+            .max_resource(16)
+            .direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Rungs: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps(), vec![1, 2, 4, 8, 16]);
+
+        // 4 completed trials at rung step=1
+        let completed: Vec<_> = (0..4)
+            .map(|i| make_trial(i, &[(1, (i + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // With eta=2, 5 total. ceil(5/2) = 3 keep. Threshold = 3.0
+        // Value 3.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(4, 1, &[(1, 3.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 4.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(4, 1, &[(1, 4.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reduction_factor_4() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new()
+            .reduction_factor(4)
+            .min_resource(1)
+            .max_resource(64)
+            .direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Rungs: 1, 4, 16, 64
+        assert_eq!(pruner.rung_steps(), vec![1, 4, 16, 64]);
+
+        // 12 completed trials at rung step=1
+        let completed: Vec<_> = (0..12)
+            .map(|i| make_trial(i, &[(1, (i + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // With eta=4, 13 total. ceil(13/4) = 4 keep. Threshold = 4.0
+        // Value 4.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(12, 1, &[(1, 4.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 5.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(12, 1, &[(1, 5.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn non_contiguous_steps() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Trials reporting at rung step=3 (not step=1)
+        let completed: Vec<_> = (0..6)
+            .map(|i| make_trial(i, &[(3, (i + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // Current trial reports at step 5 (between rung 3 and rung 9)
+        // Highest rung <= 5 is 3. Use value at rung step 3.
+        // Trial has value at step 3 → use it
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(6, 5, &[(3, 2.0)], &completed));
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(6, 5, &[(3, 5.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_at_max_resource() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new();
+        let completed: Vec<_> = (0..9)
+            .map(|i| make_trial(i, &[(81, (i + 1) as f64)]))
+            .collect();
+
+        // At the max resource rung, never prune (trial should complete)
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(9, 81, &[(81, 100.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn includes_pruned_trials_in_comparison() {
+        let pruner = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().direction(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Mix of completed and pruned trials at rung step=1
+        let completed = vec![
+            make_trial(0, &[(1, 1.0)]),
+            make_trial(1, &[(1, 2.0)]),
+            make_pruned_trial(2, &[(1, 8.0)]),
+            make_pruned_trial(3, &[(1, 9.0)]),
+            make_pruned_trial(4, &[(1, 10.0)]),
+        ];
+
+        // 6 total. ceil(6/3) = 2 keep. Threshold = 2.0
+        // Value 2.0 → keep
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(5, 1, &[(1, 2.0)], &completed));
+        // Value 3.0 → prune
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(5, 1, &[(1, 3.0)], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "min_resource must be > 0")]
+    fn rejects_zero_min_resource() {
+        let _ = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().min_resource(0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "max_resource must be > 0")]
+    fn rejects_zero_max_resource() {
+        let _ = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().max_resource(0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "reduction_factor must be >= 2")]
+    fn rejects_reduction_factor_one() {
+        let _ = SuccessiveHalvingPruner::new().reduction_factor(1);
+    }
+}

src/pruner/threshold.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+use super::Pruner;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+
+/// Prune trials whose intermediate values exceed fixed thresholds.
+///
+/// Useful for cutting off trials that are clearly diverging or stuck
+/// at bad values early in training.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::pruner::ThresholdPruner;
+///
+/// // Prune if the intermediate value exceeds 100.0 or falls below 0.0
+/// let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(100.0).lower(0.0);
+/// ```
+pub struct ThresholdPruner {
+    /// Prune if intermediate value is greater than this. `None` = no upper bound.
+    upper: Option<f64>,
+    /// Prune if intermediate value is less than this. `None` = no lower bound.
+    lower: Option<f64>,
+}
+
+impl ThresholdPruner {
+    /// Create a new `ThresholdPruner` with no thresholds set.
+    ///
+    /// By default, no pruning occurs. Use [`upper`](Self::upper) and
+    /// [`lower`](Self::lower) to set bounds.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            upper: None,
+            lower: None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the upper threshold. Trials with intermediate values above this
+    /// will be pruned.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn upper(mut self, threshold: f64) -> Self {
+        self.upper = Some(threshold);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the lower threshold. Trials with intermediate values below this
+    /// will be pruned.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn lower(mut self, threshold: f64) -> Self {
+        self.lower = Some(threshold);
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for ThresholdPruner {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Pruner for ThresholdPruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        _trial_id: u64,
+        _step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        _completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        let Some(&(_, latest_value)) = intermediate_values.last() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        if let Some(upper) = self.upper
+            && latest_value > upper
+        {
+            return true;
+        }
+        if let Some(lower) = self.lower
+            && latest_value < lower
+        {
+            return true;
+        }
+        false
+    }
+}

src/pruner/wilcoxon.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,531 @@
+use core::cmp::Ordering;
+
+use super::Pruner;
+use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+use crate::types::{Direction, TrialState};
+
+/// Prune trials using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test comparing intermediate
+/// values against the best completed trial.
+///
+/// More principled than `MedianPruner` for noisy objectives — it accounts
+/// for the paired nature of step-aligned comparisons and doesn't prune
+/// on random fluctuations.
+///
+/// The test compares intermediate values at matching steps between the
+/// current trial and the best completed trial. If the current trial is
+/// statistically significantly worse (p < threshold), it is pruned.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::Direction;
+/// use optimizer::pruner::WilcoxonPruner;
+///
+/// let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize)
+///     .p_value_threshold(0.05)
+///     .n_warmup_steps(5)
+///     .n_min_trials(1);
+/// ```
+pub struct WilcoxonPruner {
+    /// Significance level (default 0.05). Lower = more conservative.
+    p_value_threshold: f64,
+    /// Don't prune in the first N steps (let the trial warm up).
+    n_warmup_steps: u64,
+    /// Require at least N completed trials before pruning.
+    n_min_trials: usize,
+    /// The optimization direction.
+    direction: Direction,
+}
+
+impl WilcoxonPruner {
+    /// Create a new `WilcoxonPruner` for the given optimization direction.
+    ///
+    /// By default, `p_value_threshold` is 0.05, `n_warmup_steps` is 0,
+    /// and `n_min_trials` is 1.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(direction: Direction) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            p_value_threshold: 0.05,
+            n_warmup_steps: 0,
+            n_min_trials: 1,
+            direction,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set the p-value threshold for significance.
+    ///
+    /// Must be in (0.0, 1.0). Lower values are more conservative (harder to prune).
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `p` is not in the open interval (0.0, 1.0).
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn p_value_threshold(mut self, p: f64) -> Self {
+        assert!(
+            p > 0.0 && p < 1.0,
+            "p_value_threshold must be in (0.0, 1.0)"
+        );
+        self.p_value_threshold = p;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the number of warmup steps. No pruning occurs before this step.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn n_warmup_steps(mut self, n: u64) -> Self {
+        self.n_warmup_steps = n;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Set the minimum number of completed trials required before pruning.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn n_min_trials(mut self, n: usize) -> Self {
+        self.n_min_trials = n;
+        self
+    }
+}
+
+impl Pruner for WilcoxonPruner {
+    fn should_prune(
+        &self,
+        _trial_id: u64,
+        step: u64,
+        intermediate_values: &[(u64, f64)],
+        completed_trials: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> bool {
+        if step < self.n_warmup_steps {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        let completed: Vec<&CompletedTrial> = completed_trials
+            .iter()
+            .filter(|t| t.state == TrialState::Complete)
+            .collect();
+
+        if completed.len() < self.n_min_trials {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Find the best completed trial by final objective value.
+        let best = match self.direction {
+            Direction::Minimize => completed
+                .iter()
+                .min_by(|a, b| a.value.partial_cmp(&b.value).unwrap_or(Ordering::Equal)),
+            Direction::Maximize => completed
+                .iter()
+                .max_by(|a, b| a.value.partial_cmp(&b.value).unwrap_or(Ordering::Equal)),
+        };
+
+        let Some(best) = best else {
+            return false;
+        };
+
+        // Pair intermediate values at matching steps.
+        let pairs: Vec<(f64, f64)> = intermediate_values
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|&(s, current_v)| {
+                best.intermediate_values
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|(bs, _)| *bs == s)
+                    .map(|&(_, best_v)| (current_v, best_v))
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Need at least 6 pairs for a meaningful test.
+        if pairs.len() < 6 {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Compute signed differences: current - best.
+        // For minimization: positive diff means current is worse.
+        // For maximization: negative diff means current is worse.
+        let differences: Vec<f64> = pairs
+            .iter()
+            .map(|&(current, best_v)| current - best_v)
+            .collect();
+
+        // Run the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
+        let p_value = wilcoxon_signed_rank_test(&differences, self.direction);
+
+        p_value < self.p_value_threshold
+    }
+}
+
+/// Perform a one-sided Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
+///
+/// Tests whether the values tend to be worse than zero (positive for
+/// minimization, negative for maximization).
+///
+/// Returns a p-value. Small p-values indicate the current trial is
+/// significantly worse.
+fn wilcoxon_signed_rank_test(differences: &[f64], direction: Direction) -> f64 {
+    // 1. Remove zero differences.
+    let nonzero: Vec<f64> = differences.iter().copied().filter(|d| *d != 0.0).collect();
+    let n = nonzero.len();
+
+    if n < 6 {
+        return 1.0; // Not enough data
+    }
+
+    // 2. Rank by absolute value.
+    let mut abs_ranked: Vec<(usize, f64, f64)> = nonzero
+        .iter()
+        .enumerate()
+        .map(|(i, &d)| (i, d.abs(), d))
+        .collect();
+    abs_ranked.sort_by(|a, b| a.1.partial_cmp(&b.1).unwrap_or(Ordering::Equal));
+
+    // 3. Assign ranks with tie correction.
+    let ranks = assign_ranks(&abs_ranked);
+
+    // 4. Compute W+ (sum of ranks for positive differences) and
+    //    W- (sum of ranks for negative differences).
+    let mut w_plus = 0.0;
+    let mut w_minus = 0.0;
+    for (i, &(_, _, orig)) in abs_ranked.iter().enumerate() {
+        if orig > 0.0 {
+            w_plus += ranks[i];
+        } else {
+            w_minus += ranks[i];
+        }
+    }
+
+    // For one-sided test:
+    // - Minimization: we want to detect positive diffs (current worse).
+    //   Large W+ means significantly worse. Test statistic = W-.
+    // - Maximization: we want to detect negative diffs (current worse).
+    //   Large W- means significantly worse. Test statistic = W+.
+    let w = match direction {
+        Direction::Minimize => w_minus,
+        Direction::Maximize => w_plus,
+    };
+
+    // 5. Normal approximation for the p-value.
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+    let n_f = n as f64;
+    let mean = n_f * (n_f + 1.0) / 4.0;
+    let variance = n_f * (n_f + 1.0) * (2.0 * n_f + 1.0) / 24.0;
+
+    // Tie correction for variance.
+    let tie_correction = compute_tie_correction(&ranks);
+    let adjusted_variance = variance - tie_correction;
+
+    if adjusted_variance <= 0.0 {
+        return 1.0;
+    }
+
+    let std_dev = adjusted_variance.sqrt();
+
+    // Continuity correction: shift W by 0.5 towards mean.
+    let continuity = if w < mean { 0.5 } else { -0.5 };
+    let z = (w + continuity - mean) / std_dev;
+
+    // One-sided p-value (lower tail): probability that the test statistic
+    // is this small or smaller under H0.
+    normal_cdf(z)
+}
+
+/// Assign average ranks, handling ties.
+fn assign_ranks(sorted: &[(usize, f64, f64)]) -> Vec<f64> {
+    let n = sorted.len();
+    let mut ranks = vec![0.0; n];
+    let mut i = 0;
+
+    while i < n {
+        let mut j = i;
+        // Find all items tied with sorted[i].
+        while j < n
+            && (sorted[j].1 - sorted[i].1).abs() < f64::EPSILON * sorted[i].1.max(1.0) * 100.0
+        {
+            j += 1;
+        }
+        // Average rank for the tie group. Ranks are 1-based.
+        #[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+        let avg_rank = (i + 1 + j) as f64 / 2.0;
+        for rank in ranks.iter_mut().take(j).skip(i) {
+            *rank = avg_rank;
+        }
+        i = j;
+    }
+
+    ranks
+}
+
+/// Compute the tie correction term for the variance.
+/// For each tie group of size t, subtract t^3 - t from the sum,
+/// then divide by 48.
+fn compute_tie_correction(ranks: &[f64]) -> f64 {
+    let mut correction = 0.0;
+    let mut i = 0;
+
+    while i < ranks.len() {
+        let mut j = i;
+        while j < ranks.len() && (ranks[j] - ranks[i]).abs() < f64::EPSILON {
+            j += 1;
+        }
+        #[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+        let t = (j - i) as f64;
+        if t > 1.0 {
+            correction += t * t * t - t;
+        }
+        i = j;
+    }
+
+    correction / 48.0
+}
+
+/// Standard normal CDF using an approximation (Abramowitz & Stegun).
+fn normal_cdf(x: f64) -> f64 {
+    // Use the complementary error function relationship:
+    // Φ(x) = 0.5 * erfc(-x / √2)
+    0.5 * erfc(-x / core::f64::consts::SQRT_2)
+}
+
+/// Complementary error function approximation.
+/// Maximum error: 1.5 × 10⁻⁷ (Abramowitz & Stegun formula 7.1.26).
+fn erfc(x: f64) -> f64 {
+    let t = 1.0 / (1.0 + 0.327_591_1 * x.abs());
+    let poly = t
+        * (0.254_829_592
+            + t * (-0.284_496_736
+                + t * (1.421_413_741 + t * (-1.453_152_027 + t * 1.061_405_429))));
+    let result = poly * (-x * x).exp();
+
+    if x >= 0.0 { result } else { 2.0 - result }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    fn trial_with_values(
+        id: u64,
+        value: f64,
+        intermediate_values: Vec<(u64, f64)>,
+    ) -> CompletedTrial {
+        CompletedTrial::with_intermediate_values(
+            id,
+            HashMap::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            HashMap::new(),
+            value,
+            intermediate_values,
+            HashMap::new(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_during_warmup() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).n_warmup_steps(10);
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(
+            0,
+            0.1,
+            (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect(),
+        )];
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..8).map(|s| (s, 100.0)).collect();
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 7, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_with_insufficient_trials() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).n_min_trials(5);
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(
+            0,
+            0.1,
+            (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect(),
+        )];
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..10).map(|s| (s, 100.0)).collect();
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 9, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_with_fewer_than_6_pairs() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(
+            0,
+            0.1,
+            (0..5).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect(),
+        )];
+        // Only 5 matching steps
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..5).map(|s| (s, 100.0)).collect();
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 4, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prune_when_consistently_worse_minimize() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Best trial has low values.
+        let best_values: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect();
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(0, 0.1, best_values)];
+
+        // Current trial is consistently much worse.
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 10.0)).collect();
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(1, 19, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prune_when_consistently_worse_maximize() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Maximize);
+
+        // Best trial has high values.
+        let best_values: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 10.0)).collect();
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(0, 10.0, best_values)];
+
+        // Current trial is consistently much worse.
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect();
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(1, 19, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_prune_when_statistically_similar() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Best trial and current trial have very similar values with noise.
+        let best_values: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20_u64)
+            .map(|s| {
+                let noise = if s.is_multiple_of(2) { 0.01 } else { -0.01 };
+                (s, 1.0 + noise)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(0, 1.0, best_values)];
+
+        // Current trial is similar — alternating above/below.
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20_u64)
+            .map(|s| {
+                let noise = if s.is_multiple_of(2) { -0.01 } else { 0.01 };
+                (s, 1.0 + noise)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 19, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn selects_best_trial_minimize() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Two completed trials: trial 0 is better (lower).
+        let completed = vec![
+            trial_with_values(0, 0.1, (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect()),
+            trial_with_values(1, 5.0, (0..20).map(|s| (s, 5.0)).collect()),
+        ];
+
+        // Current trial is worse than the best but similar to the second.
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 5.0)).collect();
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(2, 19, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn selects_best_trial_maximize() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Maximize);
+
+        // Two completed trials: trial 1 is better (higher).
+        let completed = vec![
+            trial_with_values(0, 0.1, (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect()),
+            trial_with_values(1, 10.0, (0..20).map(|s| (s, 10.0)).collect()),
+        ];
+
+        // Current trial is worse than the best.
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect();
+        assert!(pruner.should_prune(2, 19, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ignores_pruned_trials() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // Only a pruned trial — no complete trials.
+        let mut trial = trial_with_values(0, 0.1, (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect());
+        trial.state = TrialState::Pruned;
+        let completed = vec![trial];
+
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 100.0)).collect();
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 19, &current, &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn lower_p_value_is_more_conservative() {
+        let strict = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).p_value_threshold(0.001);
+        let lenient = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).p_value_threshold(0.1);
+
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(
+            0,
+            0.1,
+            (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect(),
+        )];
+
+        // Moderately worse — should pass lenient but maybe not strict.
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20)
+            .map(|s| if s < 15 { (s, 0.2) } else { (s, 0.15) })
+            .collect();
+
+        let lenient_prunes = lenient.should_prune(1, 19, &current, &completed);
+        let strict_prunes = strict.should_prune(1, 19, &current, &completed);
+
+        // A stricter threshold should never prune when a lenient one doesn't.
+        if !lenient_prunes {
+            assert!(!strict_prunes);
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "p_value_threshold must be in (0.0, 1.0)")]
+    fn panics_on_zero_p_value() {
+        let _ = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).p_value_threshold(0.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "p_value_threshold must be in (0.0, 1.0)")]
+    fn panics_on_one_p_value() {
+        let _ = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).p_value_threshold(1.0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn correct_signed_rank_statistic() {
+        // Known example: differences [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] (all positive).
+        // Ranks: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. W+ = 21, W- = 0.
+        // For minimization (testing if positive = worse), W- = 0.
+        // This should give a very small p-value.
+        let diffs = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0];
+        let p = wilcoxon_signed_rank_test(&diffs, Direction::Minimize);
+        assert!(
+            p < 0.05,
+            "p-value {p} should be < 0.05 for all-positive diffs"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn symmetric_differences_not_significant() {
+        // Balanced differences: half positive, half negative.
+        let diffs = vec![1.0, -1.0, 2.0, -2.0, 3.0, -3.0, 4.0, -4.0];
+        let p = wilcoxon_signed_rank_test(&diffs, Direction::Minimize);
+        assert!(p > 0.05, "p-value {p} should be > 0.05 for symmetric diffs");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn normal_cdf_known_values() {
+        assert!((normal_cdf(0.0) - 0.5).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert!(normal_cdf(-10.0) < 1e-6);
+        assert!((normal_cdf(10.0) - 1.0).abs() < 1e-6);
+        assert!((normal_cdf(-1.96) - 0.025).abs() < 0.001);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_intermediate_values() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+        let completed = vec![trial_with_values(
+            0,
+            0.1,
+            (0..20).map(|s| (s, 0.1)).collect(),
+        )];
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 0, &[], &completed));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn no_completed_trials() {
+        let pruner = WilcoxonPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+        let current: Vec<(u64, f64)> = (0..20).map(|s| (s, 1.0)).collect();
+        assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 19, &current, &[]));
+    }
+}

src/sampler/bohb.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,691 @@
+//! BOHB (Bayesian Optimization + `HyperBand`) sampler.
+//!
+//! BOHB combines TPE's model-guided sampling with Hyperband's budget-aware
+//! evaluation. Instead of building one global TPE model, BOHB conditions
+//! its TPE model on trials evaluated at a specific budget level, giving
+//! better-calibrated proposals for each rung of the Hyperband schedule.
+//!
+//! # How it works
+//!
+//! 1. Compute all Hyperband rung steps (budget levels) from the config.
+//! 2. On each `sample()` call, scan the history's `intermediate_values`
+//!    to find the **largest budget level** with enough observations
+//!    (`>= min_points_in_model`).
+//! 3. Build a filtered history where each trial's `value` is replaced
+//!    with its intermediate value at that budget level.
+//! 4. Delegate to an internal [`TpeSampler`] for the actual sampling.
+//! 5. Fall back to random sampling if no budget level has enough data.
+//!
+//! # Examples
+//!
+//! ```
+//! use optimizer::sampler::bohb::BohbSampler;
+//! use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
+//!
+//! let bohb = BohbSampler::new();
+//! let pruner = bohb.matching_pruner(Direction::Minimize);
+//! let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler_and_pruner(Direction::Minimize, bohb, pruner);
+//! ```
+//!
+//! Using the builder for custom configuration:
+//!
+//! ```
+//! use optimizer::sampler::bohb::BohbSampler;
+//!
+//! let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+//!     .min_resource(1)
+//!     .max_resource(81)
+//!     .reduction_factor(3)
+//!     .min_points_in_model(10)
+//!     .seed(42)
+//!     .build()
+//!     .unwrap();
+//! ```
+
+use crate::distribution::Distribution;
+use crate::error::Result;
+use crate::param::ParamValue;
+use crate::pruner::HyperbandPruner;
+use crate::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
+use crate::sampler::{CompletedTrial, Sampler};
+use crate::types::Direction;
+
+/// A BOHB sampler that combines TPE with Hyperband budget awareness.
+///
+/// BOHB filters trial history by budget level before delegating to TPE,
+/// so the surrogate model is conditioned on trials evaluated at the same
+/// resource level. This produces better-calibrated parameter proposals
+/// than using a single global model across all budgets.
+///
+/// Use [`BohbSampler::matching_pruner`] to create a [`HyperbandPruner`]
+/// with matching parameters.
+pub struct BohbSampler {
+    min_resource: u64,
+    max_resource: u64,
+    reduction_factor: u64,
+    min_points_in_model: usize,
+    tpe: TpeSampler,
+}
+
+impl BohbSampler {
+    /// Creates a new BOHB sampler with default settings.
+    ///
+    /// Defaults:
+    /// - `min_resource`: 1
+    /// - `max_resource`: 81
+    /// - `reduction_factor`: 3
+    /// - `min_points_in_model`: 10
+    /// - TPE: default settings
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            min_resource: 1,
+            max_resource: 81,
+            reduction_factor: 3,
+            min_points_in_model: 10,
+            tpe: TpeSampler::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a builder for configuring a BOHB sampler.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use optimizer::sampler::bohb::BohbSampler;
+    ///
+    /// let sampler = BohbSampler::builder()
+    ///     .min_resource(1)
+    ///     .max_resource(27)
+    ///     .reduction_factor(3)
+    ///     .min_points_in_model(5)
+    ///     .seed(42)
+    ///     .build()
+    ///     .unwrap();
+    /// ```
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn builder() -> BohbSamplerBuilder {
+        BohbSamplerBuilder::new()
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a [`HyperbandPruner`] with matching Hyperband parameters.
+    ///
+    /// This ensures the pruner's budget schedule is consistent with the
+    /// budget levels used by BOHB for model conditioning.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn matching_pruner(&self, direction: Direction) -> HyperbandPruner {
+        HyperbandPruner::new()
+            .min_resource(self.min_resource)
+            .max_resource(self.max_resource)
+            .reduction_factor(self.reduction_factor)
+            .direction(direction)
+    }
+
+    /// Compute all unique budget levels (rung steps) across all Hyperband brackets.
+    ///
+    /// Returns sorted ascending.
+    #[allow(
+        clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+        clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+        clippy::cast_sign_loss
+    )]
+    fn all_budget_levels(&self) -> Vec<u64> {
+        let eta = self.reduction_factor as f64;
+        let ratio = self.max_resource as f64 / self.min_resource as f64;
+        let s_max = (ratio.ln() / eta.ln()).floor() as u64;
+
+        let mut levels = Vec::new();
+        for bracket in 0..=s_max {
+            let exponent = s_max.saturating_sub(bracket);
+            let min_resource_bracket =
+                (self.max_resource as f64 / eta.powi(exponent as i32)).ceil() as u64;
+
+            let mut rung: u32 = 0;
+            while let Some(power) = self.reduction_factor.checked_pow(rung) {
+                let step = min_resource_bracket.saturating_mul(power);
+                if step > self.max_resource {
+                    break;
+                }
+                levels.push(step);
+                rung += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        levels.sort_unstable();
+        levels.dedup();
+        levels
+    }
+
+    /// Build a filtered history for a specific budget level.
+    ///
+    /// For each trial that has an intermediate value at the given budget step,
+    /// creates a new `CompletedTrial` with `value` replaced by the intermediate
+    /// value at that step.
+    fn filter_history_for_budget(history: &[CompletedTrial], budget: u64) -> Vec<CompletedTrial> {
+        history
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|trial| {
+                trial
+                    .intermediate_values
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|(step, _)| *step == budget)
+                    .map(|(_, iv)| CompletedTrial {
+                        id: trial.id,
+                        params: trial.params.clone(),
+                        distributions: trial.distributions.clone(),
+                        param_labels: trial.param_labels.clone(),
+                        value: *iv,
+                        intermediate_values: trial.intermediate_values.clone(),
+                        state: trial.state,
+                        user_attrs: trial.user_attrs.clone(),
+                        constraints: trial.constraints.clone(),
+                    })
+            })
+            .collect()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for BohbSampler {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Sampler for BohbSampler {
+    fn sample(
+        &self,
+        distribution: &Distribution,
+        trial_id: u64,
+        history: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> ParamValue {
+        // Find the largest budget level with enough observations
+        let levels = self.all_budget_levels();
+
+        for &budget in levels.iter().rev() {
+            let count = history
+                .iter()
+                .filter(|t| {
+                    t.intermediate_values
+                        .iter()
+                        .any(|(step, _)| *step == budget)
+                })
+                .count();
+
+            if count >= self.min_points_in_model {
+                let filtered = Self::filter_history_for_budget(history, budget);
+                return self.tpe.sample(distribution, trial_id, &filtered);
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Not enough data at any budget level: delegate to TPE with empty history
+        // which triggers its uniform-random startup behavior.
+        self.tpe.sample(distribution, trial_id, &[])
+    }
+}
+
+/// Builder for configuring a [`BohbSampler`].
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::sampler::bohb::BohbSamplerBuilder;
+///
+/// let sampler = BohbSamplerBuilder::new()
+///     .min_resource(1)
+///     .max_resource(81)
+///     .reduction_factor(3)
+///     .gamma(0.15)
+///     .seed(42)
+///     .build()
+///     .unwrap();
+/// ```
+pub struct BohbSamplerBuilder {
+    min_resource: u64,
+    max_resource: u64,
+    reduction_factor: u64,
+    min_points_in_model: usize,
+    tpe_builder: crate::sampler::tpe::TpeSamplerBuilder,
+}
+
+impl BohbSamplerBuilder {
+    /// Creates a new builder with default settings.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            min_resource: 1,
+            max_resource: 81,
+            reduction_factor: 3,
+            min_points_in_model: 10,
+            tpe_builder: crate::sampler::tpe::TpeSamplerBuilder::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the minimum resource (budget) per trial.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `r` is 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn min_resource(mut self, r: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(r > 0, "min_resource must be > 0, got {r}");
+        self.min_resource = r;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the maximum resource (budget) per trial.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `r` is 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn max_resource(mut self, r: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(r > 0, "max_resource must be > 0, got {r}");
+        self.max_resource = r;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the reduction factor (eta).
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if `eta` is less than 2.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn reduction_factor(mut self, eta: u64) -> Self {
+        assert!(eta >= 2, "reduction_factor must be >= 2, got {eta}");
+        self.reduction_factor = eta;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the minimum number of observations at a budget level before
+    /// BOHB uses TPE instead of random sampling.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn min_points_in_model(mut self, n: usize) -> Self {
+        self.min_points_in_model = n;
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets a fixed gamma value for the internal TPE sampler.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn gamma(mut self, gamma: f64) -> Self {
+        self.tpe_builder = self.tpe_builder.gamma(gamma);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets a custom gamma strategy for the internal TPE sampler.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn gamma_strategy<G: crate::sampler::tpe::GammaStrategy + 'static>(
+        mut self,
+        strategy: G,
+    ) -> Self {
+        self.tpe_builder = self.tpe_builder.gamma_strategy(strategy);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the number of EI candidates for the internal TPE sampler.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn n_ei_candidates(mut self, n: usize) -> Self {
+        self.tpe_builder = self.tpe_builder.n_ei_candidates(n);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets a fixed KDE bandwidth for the internal TPE sampler.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn kde_bandwidth(mut self, bandwidth: f64) -> Self {
+        self.tpe_builder = self.tpe_builder.kde_bandwidth(bandwidth);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Sets a seed for reproducible sampling.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn seed(mut self, seed: u64) -> Self {
+        self.tpe_builder = self.tpe_builder.seed(seed);
+        self
+    }
+
+    /// Builds the configured [`BohbSampler`].
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if the TPE configuration is invalid (e.g. gamma
+    /// not in (0, 1) or bandwidth not positive).
+    pub fn build(self) -> Result<BohbSampler> {
+        let tpe = self.tpe_builder.build()?;
+        Ok(BohbSampler {
+            min_resource: self.min_resource,
+            max_resource: self.max_resource,
+            reduction_factor: self.reduction_factor,
+            min_points_in_model: self.min_points_in_model,
+            tpe,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for BohbSamplerBuilder {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+#[allow(clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::distribution::{FloatDistribution, IntDistribution};
+    use crate::parameter::ParamId;
+    use crate::types::TrialState;
+
+    fn make_trial_with_intermediates(
+        id: u64,
+        value: f64,
+        params: Vec<(ParamId, ParamValue, Distribution)>,
+        intermediate_values: Vec<(u64, f64)>,
+    ) -> CompletedTrial {
+        let mut param_map = HashMap::new();
+        let mut dist_map = HashMap::new();
+        for (param_id, pv, dist) in params {
+            param_map.insert(param_id, pv);
+            dist_map.insert(param_id, dist);
+        }
+        CompletedTrial {
+            id,
+            params: param_map,
+            distributions: dist_map,
+            param_labels: HashMap::new(),
+            value,
+            intermediate_values,
+            state: TrialState::Complete,
+            user_attrs: HashMap::new(),
+            constraints: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn budget_levels_default() {
+        let bohb = BohbSampler::new();
+        let levels = bohb.all_budget_levels();
+        // With min=1, max=81, eta=3:
+        // bracket 0: 1, 3, 9, 27, 81
+        // bracket 1: 3, 9, 27, 81
+        // bracket 2: 9, 27, 81
+        // bracket 3: 27, 81
+        // bracket 4: 81
+        // Unique sorted: [1, 3, 9, 27, 81]
+        assert_eq!(levels, vec![1, 3, 9, 27, 81]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn budget_levels_eta2() {
+        let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+            .min_resource(1)
+            .max_resource(16)
+            .reduction_factor(2)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let levels = bohb.all_budget_levels();
+        // s_max = floor(ln(16)/ln(2)) = 4
+        // bracket 0: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16
+        // bracket 1: 2, 4, 8, 16
+        // bracket 2: 4, 8, 16
+        // bracket 3: 8, 16
+        // bracket 4: 16
+        // Unique sorted: [1, 2, 4, 8, 16]
+        assert_eq!(levels, vec![1, 2, 4, 8, 16]);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn filter_history_selects_correct_budget() {
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        let history = vec![
+            make_trial_with_intermediates(
+                0,
+                0.5,
+                vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone())],
+                vec![(1, 0.9), (3, 0.7), (9, 0.5)],
+            ),
+            make_trial_with_intermediates(
+                1,
+                0.4,
+                vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist.clone())],
+                vec![(1, 0.8), (3, 0.4)],
+            ),
+            make_trial_with_intermediates(
+                2,
+                0.3,
+                vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone())],
+                vec![(1, 0.7)],
+            ),
+        ];
+
+        // Budget 3: trials 0 and 1 have intermediate values at step 3
+        let filtered = BohbSampler::filter_history_for_budget(&history, 3);
+        assert_eq!(filtered.len(), 2);
+        assert!((filtered[0].value - 0.7).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+        assert!((filtered[1].value - 0.4).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+
+        // Budget 9: only trial 0
+        let filtered = BohbSampler::filter_history_for_budget(&history, 9);
+        assert_eq!(filtered.len(), 1);
+        assert!((filtered[0].value - 0.5).abs() < f64::EPSILON);
+
+        // Budget 27: nobody
+        let filtered = BohbSampler::filter_history_for_budget(&history, 27);
+        assert!(filtered.is_empty());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn matching_pruner_has_same_params() {
+        let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+            .min_resource(2)
+            .max_resource(64)
+            .reduction_factor(4)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+        let pruner = bohb.matching_pruner(Direction::Minimize);
+
+        // We can't directly inspect HyperbandPruner fields, but we can
+        // verify it was created without panicking with the same params.
+        // The pruner's rung steps should match BOHB's budget levels.
+        // Just verify it doesn't panic.
+        drop(pruner);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fallback_to_random_when_insufficient_data() {
+        let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+            .min_points_in_model(10)
+            .seed(42)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        // Only 3 trials with intermediate values (< min_points_in_model=10)
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..3)
+            .map(|i| {
+                make_trial_with_intermediates(
+                    i,
+                    i as f64,
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(i as f64 / 3.0), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(1, i as f64)],
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Should not panic, should sample within bounds
+        for trial_id in 0..20 {
+            let val = bohb.sample(&dist, trial_id, &history);
+            if let ParamValue::Float(v) = val {
+                assert!((0.0..=1.0).contains(&v));
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Float");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn uses_budget_level_when_enough_data() {
+        let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+            .min_points_in_model(5)
+            .seed(42)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 10.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        // Create 20 trials with intermediate values at budget 1.
+        // Good trials have x near 2.0, bad trials have x far from 2.0.
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..20)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let x = i as f64 / 2.0;
+                let iv_at_1 = (x - 2.0).powi(2);
+                make_trial_with_intermediates(
+                    i,
+                    iv_at_1, // final value same as intermediate for simplicity
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(x), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(1, iv_at_1)],
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Should use TPE on filtered history at budget 1
+        let val = bohb.sample(&dist, 100, &history);
+        if let ParamValue::Float(v) = val {
+            assert!((0.0..=10.0).contains(&v), "Value {v} out of bounds");
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected Float");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn prefers_largest_budget_level() {
+        let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+            .min_resource(1)
+            .max_resource(9)
+            .reduction_factor(3)
+            .min_points_in_model(3)
+            .seed(42)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 10.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        // Budget levels: [1, 3, 9]
+        assert_eq!(bohb.all_budget_levels(), vec![1, 3, 9]);
+
+        // Create 5 trials with intermediates at budget 1 and 3
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..5)
+            .map(|i| {
+                let x = i as f64;
+                make_trial_with_intermediates(
+                    i,
+                    x,
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(x), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(1, x * 2.0), (3, x)],
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        // Budget 3 has 5 observations (>= 3), budget 9 has 0.
+        // BOHB should pick budget 3 (largest with enough data).
+        // The filtered history at budget 3 has values [0, 1, 2, 3, 4].
+        let filtered_3 = BohbSampler::filter_history_for_budget(&history, 3);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_3.len(), 5);
+        let filtered_9 = BohbSampler::filter_history_for_budget(&history, 9);
+        assert_eq!(filtered_9.len(), 0);
+
+        // Should sample successfully
+        let val = bohb.sample(&dist, 100, &history);
+        assert!(matches!(val, ParamValue::Float(_)));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn builder_validates_tpe_params() {
+        // Invalid gamma
+        let result = BohbSampler::builder().gamma(1.5).build();
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+
+        // Invalid bandwidth
+        let result = BohbSampler::builder().kde_bandwidth(-1.0).build();
+        assert!(result.is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "min_resource must be > 0")]
+    fn builder_rejects_zero_min_resource() {
+        let _ = BohbSampler::builder().min_resource(0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "max_resource must be > 0")]
+    fn builder_rejects_zero_max_resource() {
+        let _ = BohbSampler::builder().max_resource(0);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic(expected = "reduction_factor must be >= 2")]
+    fn builder_rejects_small_reduction_factor() {
+        let _ = BohbSampler::builder().reduction_factor(1);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn int_distribution_works() {
+        let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+            .min_points_in_model(3)
+            .seed(42)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let dist = Distribution::Int(IntDistribution {
+            low: 0,
+            high: 100,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..10)
+            .map(|i| {
+                make_trial_with_intermediates(
+                    i,
+                    i as f64,
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Int(i.cast_signed() * 10), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(1, i as f64)],
+                )
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        let val = bohb.sample(&dist, 100, &history);
+        if let ParamValue::Int(v) = val {
+            assert!((0..=100).contains(&v));
+        } else {
+            panic!("Expected Int");
+        }
+    }
+}

src/sampler/mod.rs

@@ -1,18 +1,21 @@
 //! Sampler trait and implementations for parameter sampling.
 
+pub mod bohb;
+#[cfg(feature = "cma-es")]
+pub mod cma_es;
 pub mod grid;
-pub mod multivariate_tpe;
 pub mod random;
+#[cfg(feature = "sobol")]
+pub mod sobol;
 pub mod tpe;
 
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 
-pub use multivariate_tpe::{
-    ConstantLiarStrategy, MultivariateTpeSampler, MultivariateTpeSamplerBuilder,
-};
-
 use crate::distribution::Distribution;
 use crate::param::ParamValue;
+use crate::parameter::{ParamId, Parameter};
+use crate::trial::AttrValue;
+use crate::types::TrialState;
 
 /// A completed trial with its parameters, distributions, and objective value.
 ///
@@ -20,32 +23,134 @@ use crate::param::ParamValue;
 /// parameter values, their distributions, and the objective value returned
 /// by the objective function.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub struct CompletedTrial<V = f64> {
     /// The unique identifier for this trial.
     pub id: u64,
-    /// The sampled parameter values, keyed by parameter name.
-    pub params: HashMap<String, ParamValue>,
-    /// The parameter distributions used, keyed by parameter name.
-    pub distributions: HashMap<String, Distribution>,
+    /// The sampled parameter values, keyed by parameter id.
+    pub params: HashMap<ParamId, ParamValue>,
+    /// The parameter distributions used, keyed by parameter id.
+    pub distributions: HashMap<ParamId, Distribution>,
+    /// Human-readable labels for parameters, keyed by parameter id.
+    pub param_labels: HashMap<ParamId, String>,
     /// The objective value returned by the objective function.
     pub value: V,
+    /// Intermediate objective values reported during the trial.
+    pub intermediate_values: Vec<(u64, f64)>,
+    /// The state of the trial (Complete, Pruned, or Failed).
+    pub state: TrialState,
+    /// User-defined attributes stored during the trial.
+    pub user_attrs: HashMap<String, AttrValue>,
+    /// Constraint values for this trial (<=0.0 means feasible).
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(default))]
+    pub constraints: Vec<f64>,
 }
 
 impl<V> CompletedTrial<V> {
     /// Creates a new completed trial.
     pub fn new(
         id: u64,
-        params: HashMap<String, ParamValue>,
-        distributions: HashMap<String, Distribution>,
+        params: HashMap<ParamId, ParamValue>,
+        distributions: HashMap<ParamId, Distribution>,
+        param_labels: HashMap<ParamId, String>,
         value: V,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             id,
             params,
             distributions,
+            param_labels,
             value,
+            intermediate_values: Vec::new(),
+            state: TrialState::Complete,
+            user_attrs: HashMap::new(),
+            constraints: Vec::new(),
         }
     }
+
+    /// Creates a new completed trial with intermediate values and user attributes.
+    pub fn with_intermediate_values(
+        id: u64,
+        params: HashMap<ParamId, ParamValue>,
+        distributions: HashMap<ParamId, Distribution>,
+        param_labels: HashMap<ParamId, String>,
+        value: V,
+        intermediate_values: Vec<(u64, f64)>,
+        user_attrs: HashMap<String, AttrValue>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            id,
+            params,
+            distributions,
+            param_labels,
+            value,
+            intermediate_values,
+            state: TrialState::Complete,
+            user_attrs,
+            constraints: Vec::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the typed value for the given parameter.
+    ///
+    /// Looks up the parameter by its unique id and casts the stored
+    /// [`ParamValue`] to the parameter's typed value.
+    ///
+    /// Returns `None` if the parameter was not used in this trial.
+    ///
+    /// # Panics
+    ///
+    /// Panics if the stored value is incompatible with the parameter type
+    /// (e.g., a `Float` value stored for an `IntParam`). This indicates
+    /// a bug in the program, not a runtime error.
+    ///
+    /// # Examples
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use optimizer::parameter::{FloatParam, Parameter};
+    /// use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
+    ///
+    /// let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    /// let x = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0);
+    ///
+    /// study
+    ///     .optimize(5, |trial| {
+    ///         let val = x.suggest(trial)?;
+    ///         Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(val * val)
+    ///     })
+    ///     .unwrap();
+    ///
+    /// let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    /// let x_val: f64 = best.get(&x).unwrap();
+    /// assert!((-10.0..=10.0).contains(&x_val));
+    /// ```
+    pub fn get<P: Parameter>(&self, param: &P) -> Option<P::Value> {
+        self.params.get(&param.id()).map(|v| {
+            param
+                .cast_param_value(v)
+                .expect("parameter type mismatch: stored value incompatible with parameter")
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Returns `true` if all constraints are satisfied (values <= 0.0).
+    ///
+    /// A trial with no constraints is considered feasible.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn is_feasible(&self) -> bool {
+        self.constraints.iter().all(|&c| c <= 0.0)
+    }
+
+    /// Gets a user attribute by key.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn user_attr(&self, key: &str) -> Option<&AttrValue> {
+        self.user_attrs.get(key)
+    }
+
+    /// Returns all user attributes.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn user_attrs(&self) -> &HashMap<String, AttrValue> {
+        &self.user_attrs
+    }
 }
 
 /// A pending (running) trial with its parameters and distributions, but no objective value yet.
@@ -53,34 +158,16 @@ impl<V> CompletedTrial<V> {
 /// This struct represents a trial that has been started and has sampled parameters,
 /// but is still running and hasn't returned an objective value. It is used with the
 /// constant liar strategy for parallel optimization.
-///
-/// # Examples
-///
-/// ```ignore
-/// use std::collections::HashMap;
-/// use optimizer::sampler::PendingTrial;
-/// use optimizer::param::ParamValue;
-/// use optimizer::distribution::{Distribution, FloatDistribution};
-///
-/// let mut params = HashMap::new();
-/// params.insert("x".to_string(), ParamValue::Float(0.5));
-///
-/// let mut distributions = HashMap::new();
-/// distributions.insert("x".to_string(), Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
-///     low: 0.0, high: 1.0, log_scale: false, step: None,
-/// }));
-///
-/// let pending = PendingTrial::new(1, params, distributions);
-/// assert_eq!(pending.id, 1);
-/// ```
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct PendingTrial {
     /// The unique identifier for this trial.
     pub id: u64,
-    /// The sampled parameter values, keyed by parameter name.
-    pub params: HashMap<String, ParamValue>,
-    /// The parameter distributions used, keyed by parameter name.
-    pub distributions: HashMap<String, Distribution>,
+    /// The sampled parameter values, keyed by parameter id.
+    pub params: HashMap<ParamId, ParamValue>,
+    /// The parameter distributions used, keyed by parameter id.
+    pub distributions: HashMap<ParamId, Distribution>,
+    /// Human-readable labels for parameters, keyed by parameter id.
+    pub param_labels: HashMap<ParamId, String>,
 }
 
 impl PendingTrial {
@@ -88,13 +175,15 @@ impl PendingTrial {
     #[must_use]
     pub fn new(
         id: u64,
-        params: HashMap<String, ParamValue>,
-        distributions: HashMap<String, Distribution>,
+        params: HashMap<ParamId, ParamValue>,
+        distributions: HashMap<ParamId, Distribution>,
+        param_labels: HashMap<ParamId, String>,
     ) -> Self {
         Self {
             id,
             params,
             distributions,
+            param_labels,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -104,28 +193,6 @@ impl PendingTrial {
 /// Samplers are responsible for generating parameter values based on
 /// the distribution and historical trial data. The trait requires
 /// `Send + Sync` to support concurrent and async optimization.
-///
-/// # Examples
-///
-/// Implementing a custom sampler:
-///
-/// ```ignore
-/// use optimizer::{Sampler, ParamValue, Distribution, CompletedTrial};
-///
-/// struct MySampler;
-///
-/// impl Sampler for MySampler {
-///     fn sample(
-///         &self,
-///         distribution: &Distribution,
-///         trial_id: u64,
-///         history: &[CompletedTrial],
-///     ) -> ParamValue {
-///         // Custom sampling logic here
-///         todo!()
-///     }
-/// }
-/// ```
 pub trait Sampler: Send + Sync {
     /// Samples a parameter value from the given distribution.
     ///

src/sampler/random.rs

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 use parking_lot::Mutex;
 use rand::rngs::StdRng;
-use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+use rand::{RngExt, SeedableRng};
 
 use crate::distribution::Distribution;
 use crate::param::ParamValue;
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ impl RandomSampler {
     #[must_use]
     pub fn new() -> Self {
         Self {
-            rng: Mutex::new(StdRng::from_os_rng()),
+            rng: Mutex::new(rand::make_rng()),
         }
     }
 

src/sampler/sobol.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,420 @@
+//! Quasi-random sampler using Sobol low-discrepancy sequences.
+
+use parking_lot::Mutex;
+use sobol_burley::sample;
+
+use crate::distribution::Distribution;
+use crate::param::ParamValue;
+use crate::sampler::{CompletedTrial, Sampler};
+
+/// Internal state for tracking the dimension counter within a trial.
+struct SobolState {
+    /// The `trial_id` of the current trial (used to reset dimension counter).
+    current_trial: u64,
+    /// Next Sobol dimension to use for the current trial.
+    next_dimension: u32,
+}
+
+/// Quasi-random sampler using Sobol low-discrepancy sequences.
+///
+/// Provides better uniform coverage of the parameter space than
+/// [`RandomSampler`](super::random::RandomSampler). Useful as a baseline or
+/// for the startup phase of model-based samplers.
+///
+/// Unlike random sampling, Sobol sequences are deterministic and fill the
+/// space more evenly, reducing the number of trials needed to adequately
+/// cover the search space.
+///
+/// Each trial uses a different Sobol sequence index, and each parameter
+/// within a trial maps to a different Sobol dimension. Parameters must be
+/// suggested in the same order across trials for consistent dimension
+/// assignment.
+///
+/// Sobol sequences are most effective in moderate dimensions (up to ~20).
+/// For very high dimensions, the uniformity advantage diminishes.
+///
+/// Requires the `sobol` feature flag.
+///
+/// # Examples
+///
+/// ```
+/// use optimizer::sampler::sobol::SobolSampler;
+/// use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
+///
+/// let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, SobolSampler::new());
+/// ```
+pub struct SobolSampler {
+    seed: u32,
+    state: Mutex<SobolState>,
+}
+
+impl SobolSampler {
+    /// Creates a new Sobol sampler with a default seed of 0.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::with_seed(0)
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a new Sobol sampler with the given seed.
+    ///
+    /// Different seeds produce statistically independent Sobol sequences.
+    /// Using the same seed will produce the same sequence of sampled values.
+    #[must_use]
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_possible_truncation)]
+    pub fn with_seed(seed: u64) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            seed: seed as u32,
+            state: Mutex::new(SobolState {
+                current_trial: u64::MAX,
+                next_dimension: 0,
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for SobolSampler {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Sampler for SobolSampler {
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_possible_truncation, clippy::cast_precision_loss)]
+    fn sample(
+        &self,
+        distribution: &Distribution,
+        trial_id: u64,
+        _history: &[CompletedTrial],
+    ) -> ParamValue {
+        let mut state = self.state.lock();
+
+        // Reset dimension counter when a new trial starts.
+        if state.current_trial != trial_id {
+            state.current_trial = trial_id;
+            state.next_dimension = 0;
+        }
+
+        let dimension = state.next_dimension;
+        state.next_dimension = dimension + 1;
+
+        // Use trial_id as the Sobol sequence index.
+        let index = trial_id as u32;
+
+        // Generate a quasi-random point in [0, 1).
+        let point = f64::from(sample(index, dimension, self.seed));
+
+        map_point_to_distribution(point, distribution)
+    }
+}
+
+/// Maps a uniform [0, 1) point to a value within the given distribution.
+#[allow(
+    clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+    clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+    clippy::cast_sign_loss
+)]
+fn map_point_to_distribution(point: f64, distribution: &Distribution) -> ParamValue {
+    match distribution {
+        Distribution::Float(d) => {
+            let value = if d.log_scale {
+                let log_low = d.low.ln();
+                let log_high = d.high.ln();
+                (log_low + point * (log_high - log_low)).exp()
+            } else if let Some(step) = d.step {
+                let n_steps = ((d.high - d.low) / step).floor() as i64;
+                let k = (point * (n_steps + 1) as f64).floor() as i64;
+                let k = k.min(n_steps);
+                d.low + (k as f64) * step
+            } else {
+                d.low + point * (d.high - d.low)
+            };
+            ParamValue::Float(value)
+        }
+        Distribution::Int(d) => {
+            let value = if d.log_scale {
+                let log_low = (d.low as f64).ln();
+                let log_high = (d.high as f64).ln();
+                let raw = (log_low + point * (log_high - log_low)).exp().round() as i64;
+                raw.clamp(d.low, d.high)
+            } else if let Some(step) = d.step {
+                let n_steps = (d.high - d.low) / step;
+                let k = (point * (n_steps + 1) as f64).floor() as i64;
+                let k = k.min(n_steps);
+                d.low + k * step
+            } else {
+                let range = d.high - d.low + 1;
+                let k = (point * range as f64).floor() as i64;
+                (d.low + k).min(d.high)
+            };
+            ParamValue::Int(value)
+        }
+        Distribution::Categorical(d) => {
+            let index = (point * d.n_choices as f64).floor() as usize;
+            let index = index.min(d.n_choices - 1);
+            ParamValue::Categorical(index)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+#[allow(
+    clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
+    clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+    clippy::cast_sign_loss
+)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use crate::distribution::{CategoricalDistribution, FloatDistribution, IntDistribution};
+
+    #[test]
+    fn float_within_bounds() {
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: -5.0,
+            high: 5.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Float(v) = value {
+                assert!(
+                    (-5.0..=5.0).contains(&v),
+                    "value {v} out of bounds at trial {i}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Float value");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn float_log_scale_within_bounds() {
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 1e-5,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: true,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Float(v) = value {
+                assert!(
+                    (1e-5..=1.0).contains(&v),
+                    "value {v} out of bounds at trial {i}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Float value");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn float_step_respects_grid() {
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: Some(0.25),
+        });
+
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Float(v) = value {
+                assert!((0.0..=1.0).contains(&v), "value {v} out of bounds");
+                let k = (v / 0.25).round() as i64;
+                let expected = k as f64 * 0.25;
+                assert!((v - expected).abs() < 1e-10, "value {v} not on step grid");
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Float value");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn int_within_bounds() {
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let dist = Distribution::Int(IntDistribution {
+            low: 0,
+            high: 10,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Int(v) = value {
+                assert!(
+                    (0..=10).contains(&v),
+                    "value {v} out of bounds at trial {i}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Int value");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn int_log_scale_within_bounds() {
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let dist = Distribution::Int(IntDistribution {
+            low: 1,
+            high: 1000,
+            log_scale: true,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Int(v) = value {
+                assert!(
+                    (1..=1000).contains(&v),
+                    "value {v} out of bounds at trial {i}"
+                );
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Int value");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn int_step_respects_grid() {
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let dist = Distribution::Int(IntDistribution {
+            low: 0,
+            high: 10,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: Some(2),
+        });
+
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Int(v) = value {
+                assert!((0..=10).contains(&v), "value {v} out of bounds");
+                assert!(v % 2 == 0, "value {v} not on step grid");
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Int value");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn categorical_within_bounds() {
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let dist = Distribution::Categorical(CategoricalDistribution { n_choices: 5 });
+
+        for i in 0..100 {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Categorical(idx) = value {
+                assert!(idx < 5, "index {idx} out of bounds at trial {i}");
+            } else {
+                panic!("Expected Categorical value");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn deterministic_with_same_seed() {
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        let sampler1 = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+        let sampler2 = SobolSampler::with_seed(42);
+
+        for i in 0..20 {
+            let v1 = sampler1.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            let v2 = sampler2.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            assert_eq!(v1, v2, "mismatch at trial {i}");
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn different_seeds_produce_different_sequences() {
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        let sampler1 = SobolSampler::with_seed(0);
+        let sampler2 = SobolSampler::with_seed(12345);
+
+        let mut any_different = false;
+        for i in 0..20 {
+            let v1 = sampler1.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            let v2 = sampler2.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if v1 != v2 {
+                any_different = true;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        assert!(
+            any_different,
+            "different seeds should produce different sequences"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn better_coverage_than_random() {
+        // Sobol sequence should cover [0,1] more uniformly than random.
+        // We measure this by checking that the Sobol samples fill all
+        // 10 equal-width bins with only 20 samples.
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(0);
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        let n_bins = 10;
+        let n_samples = 20;
+        let mut bins = vec![0u32; n_bins];
+
+        for i in 0..n_samples {
+            let value = sampler.sample(&dist, i, &[]);
+            if let ParamValue::Float(v) = value {
+                let bin = ((v * n_bins as f64).floor() as usize).min(n_bins - 1);
+                bins[bin] += 1;
+            }
+        }
+
+        let filled_bins = bins.iter().filter(|&&c| c > 0).count();
+        assert!(
+            filled_bins >= 8,
+            "Expected at least 8/10 bins filled, got {filled_bins}: {bins:?}"
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn multi_parameter_uses_different_dimensions() {
+        // When sampling multiple parameters per trial, each parameter
+        // should get a different Sobol dimension, producing different values.
+        let sampler = SobolSampler::with_seed(0);
+        let dist = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
+            low: 0.0,
+            high: 1.0,
+            log_scale: false,
+            step: None,
+        });
+
+        // Sample two parameters for trial 0.
+        let v1 = sampler.sample(&dist, 0, &[]);
+        let v2 = sampler.sample(&dist, 0, &[]);
+
+        // They should differ (different Sobol dimensions for the same index).
+        assert_ne!(
+            v1, v2,
+            "multi-parameter samples should use different dimensions"
+        );
+    }
+}

src/sampler/tpe/mod.rs

@@ -4,9 +4,13 @@
 //! including support for intersection search space calculation.
 
 mod gamma;
+mod multivariate;
 mod sampler;
 pub mod search_space;
 
 pub use gamma::{FixedGamma, GammaStrategy, HyperoptGamma, LinearGamma, SqrtGamma};
+pub use multivariate::{
+    ConstantLiarStrategy, MultivariateTpeSampler, MultivariateTpeSamplerBuilder,
+};
 pub use sampler::{TpeSampler, TpeSamplerBuilder};
 pub use search_space::{GroupDecomposedSearchSpace, IntersectionSearchSpace};

src/sampler/tpe/sampler.rs

@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use parking_lot::Mutex;
 use rand::rngs::StdRng;
-use rand::{Rng, SeedableRng};
+use rand::{RngExt, SeedableRng};
 
 use crate::distribution::Distribution;
 use crate::error::{Error, Result};
@@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ impl TpeSampler {
             n_startup_trials: 10,
             n_ei_candidates: 24,
             kde_bandwidth: None,
-            rng: Mutex::new(StdRng::from_os_rng()),
+            rng: Mutex::new(rand::make_rng()),
         }
     }
 
@@ -251,7 +251,7 @@ impl TpeSampler {
 
         let rng = match seed {
             Some(s) => StdRng::seed_from_u64(s),
-            None => StdRng::from_os_rng(),
+            None => rand::make_rng(),
         };
 
         Ok(Self {
@@ -280,6 +280,7 @@ impl TpeSampler {
         clippy::cast_possible_truncation,
         clippy::cast_sign_loss
     )]
+    #[must_use]
     fn split_trials<'a>(
         &self,
         history: &'a [CompletedTrial],
@@ -856,7 +857,7 @@ impl TpeSamplerBuilder {
 
         let rng = match self.seed {
             Some(s) => StdRng::seed_from_u64(s),
-            None => StdRng::from_os_rng(),
+            None => rand::make_rng(),
         };
 
         Ok(TpeSampler {
@@ -1023,19 +1024,20 @@ mod tests {
 
     use super::*;
     use crate::distribution::{CategoricalDistribution, FloatDistribution, IntDistribution};
+    use crate::parameter::ParamId;
 
     fn create_trial(
         id: u64,
         value: f64,
-        params: Vec<(&str, ParamValue, Distribution)>,
+        params: Vec<(ParamId, ParamValue, Distribution)>,
     ) -> CompletedTrial {
         let mut param_map = HashMap::new();
         let mut dist_map = HashMap::new();
-        for (name, pv, dist) in params {
-            param_map.insert(name.to_string(), pv);
-            dist_map.insert(name.to_string(), dist);
+        for (param_id, pv, dist) in params {
+            param_map.insert(param_id, pv);
+            dist_map.insert(param_id, dist);
         }
-        CompletedTrial::new(id, param_map, dist_map, value)
+        CompletedTrial::new(id, param_map, dist_map, HashMap::new(), value)
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1103,12 +1105,13 @@ mod tests {
         });
 
         // Create 20 trials with values 0..20
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
         let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..20)
             .map(|i| {
                 create_trial(
                     i as u64,
                     f64::from(i),
-                    vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(f64::from(i) / 20.0), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(f64::from(i) / 20.0), dist.clone())],
                 )
             })
             .collect();
@@ -1137,6 +1140,7 @@ mod tests {
         });
 
         // Create history where low values (near 0.2) are "good"
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
         let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..20)
             .map(|i| {
                 let x = f64::from(i) / 20.0;
@@ -1145,7 +1149,7 @@ mod tests {
                 create_trial(
                     i as u64,
                     value,
-                    vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(x), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(x), dist.clone())],
                 )
             })
             .collect();
@@ -1174,6 +1178,7 @@ mod tests {
         let dist = Distribution::Categorical(CategoricalDistribution { n_choices: 4 });
 
         // Create history where category 1 is consistently good
+        let cat_id = ParamId::new();
         let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..20)
             .map(|i| {
                 let category = i % 4;
@@ -1183,7 +1188,7 @@ mod tests {
                     i as u64,
                     value,
                     vec![(
-                        "cat",
+                        cat_id,
                         ParamValue::Categorical(category as usize),
                         dist.clone(),
                     )],
@@ -1219,6 +1224,7 @@ mod tests {
         });
 
         // Create history where values near 30 are good
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
         let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..20)
             .map(|i| {
                 let x = i * 5; // 0, 5, 10, ..., 95
@@ -1226,7 +1232,7 @@ mod tests {
                 create_trial(
                     i as u64,
                     value,
-                    vec![("x", ParamValue::Int(x), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Int(x), dist.clone())],
                 )
             })
             .collect();
@@ -1251,12 +1257,13 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
         let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..20)
             .map(|i| {
                 create_trial(
                     i as u64,
                     f64::from(i),
-                    vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(f64::from(i) / 20.0), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(f64::from(i) / 20.0), dist.clone())],
                 )
             })
             .collect();
@@ -1331,12 +1338,13 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
         let history: Vec<CompletedTrial> = (0..20u32)
             .map(|i| {
                 create_trial(
                     u64::from(i),
                     f64::from(i),
-                    vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(f64::from(i) / 20.0), dist.clone())],
+                    vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(f64::from(i) / 20.0), dist.clone())],
                 )
             })
             .collect();

src/sampler/tpe/search_space.rs

@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet, VecDeque};
 
 use crate::distribution::Distribution;
+use crate::parameter::ParamId;
 use crate::sampler::CompletedTrial;
 
 /// Computes the intersection of search spaces across completed trials.
@@ -87,34 +88,30 @@ impl IntersectionSearchSpace {
     /// - For dynamic search spaces where not all parameters are sampled in every trial,
     ///   this helps identify the "stable" set of parameters that can be modeled jointly.
     #[must_use]
-    pub fn calculate(trials: &[CompletedTrial]) -> HashMap<String, Distribution> {
+    pub fn calculate(trials: &[CompletedTrial]) -> HashMap<ParamId, Distribution> {
         if trials.is_empty() {
             return HashMap::new();
         }
 
-        // Get parameter names from the first trial as the initial candidate set
+        // Get parameter ids from the first trial as the initial candidate set
         let first_trial = &trials[0];
-        let mut candidate_params: HashSet<&str> = first_trial
-            .distributions
-            .keys()
-            .map(String::as_str)
-            .collect();
+        let mut candidate_params: HashSet<ParamId> =
+            first_trial.distributions.keys().copied().collect();
 
         // Intersect with parameter sets from all other trials
         for trial in trials.iter().skip(1) {
-            let trial_params: HashSet<&str> =
-                trial.distributions.keys().map(String::as_str).collect();
+            let trial_params: HashSet<ParamId> = trial.distributions.keys().copied().collect();
             candidate_params.retain(|param| trial_params.contains(param));
         }
 
         // Build the result map using distributions from the first trial
         // that contains each parameter
         let mut result = HashMap::new();
-        for param_name in candidate_params {
+        for param_id in candidate_params {
             // Find the first trial that has this parameter and use its distribution
             for trial in trials {
-                if let Some(dist) = trial.distributions.get(param_name) {
-                    result.insert(param_name.to_string(), dist.clone());
+                if let Some(dist) = trial.distributions.get(&param_id) {
+                    result.insert(param_id, dist.clone());
                     break;
                 }
             }
@@ -193,7 +190,7 @@ impl GroupDecomposedSearchSpace {
     ///
     /// # Returns
     ///
-    /// A `Vec<HashSet<String>>` where each `HashSet` represents an independent group
+    /// A `Vec<HashSet<ParamId>>` where each `HashSet` represents an independent group
     /// of parameters that co-occur. Parameters within the same group have appeared
     /// together in at least one trial (directly or transitively). Parameters in
     /// different groups have never appeared in the same trial.
@@ -212,16 +209,16 @@ impl GroupDecomposedSearchSpace {
     /// - This is useful for `MultivariateTpeSampler` when `group=true` to sample
     ///   independent parameter groups separately.
     #[must_use]
-    pub fn calculate(trials: &[CompletedTrial]) -> Vec<HashSet<String>> {
+    pub fn calculate(trials: &[CompletedTrial]) -> Vec<HashSet<ParamId>> {
         if trials.is_empty() {
             return Vec::new();
         }
 
-        // Collect all unique parameter names
-        let mut all_params: HashSet<String> = HashSet::new();
+        // Collect all unique parameter ids
+        let mut all_params: HashSet<ParamId> = HashSet::new();
         for trial in trials {
-            for param_name in trial.distributions.keys() {
-                all_params.insert(param_name.clone());
+            for &param_id in trial.distributions.keys() {
+                all_params.insert(param_id);
             }
         }
 
@@ -231,51 +228,51 @@ impl GroupDecomposedSearchSpace {
 
         // Build adjacency list for co-occurrence graph
         // Two parameters are adjacent if they appear in the same trial
-        let mut adjacency: HashMap<String, HashSet<String>> = HashMap::new();
-        for param in &all_params {
-            adjacency.insert(param.clone(), HashSet::new());
+        let mut adjacency: HashMap<ParamId, HashSet<ParamId>> = HashMap::new();
+        for &param in &all_params {
+            adjacency.insert(param, HashSet::new());
         }
 
         for trial in trials {
-            let trial_params: Vec<&String> = trial.distributions.keys().collect();
+            let trial_params: Vec<ParamId> = trial.distributions.keys().copied().collect();
             // Connect all pairs of parameters in this trial
-            for (i, param1) in trial_params.iter().enumerate() {
-                for param2 in trial_params.iter().skip(i + 1) {
+            for (i, &param1) in trial_params.iter().enumerate() {
+                for &param2 in trial_params.iter().skip(i + 1) {
                     adjacency
-                        .get_mut(*param1)
+                        .get_mut(&param1)
                         .expect("param should exist in adjacency map")
-                        .insert((*param2).clone());
+                        .insert(param2);
                     adjacency
-                        .get_mut(*param2)
+                        .get_mut(&param2)
                         .expect("param should exist in adjacency map")
-                        .insert((*param1).clone());
+                        .insert(param1);
                 }
             }
         }
 
         // Find connected components using BFS
-        let mut visited: HashSet<String> = HashSet::new();
-        let mut groups: Vec<HashSet<String>> = Vec::new();
+        let mut visited: HashSet<ParamId> = HashSet::new();
+        let mut groups: Vec<HashSet<ParamId>> = Vec::new();
 
-        for param in &all_params {
-            if visited.contains(param) {
+        for &param in &all_params {
+            if visited.contains(&param) {
                 continue;
             }
 
             // BFS to find all parameters in this component
-            let mut component: HashSet<String> = HashSet::new();
-            let mut queue: VecDeque<String> = VecDeque::new();
-            queue.push_back(param.clone());
-            visited.insert(param.clone());
+            let mut component: HashSet<ParamId> = HashSet::new();
+            let mut queue: VecDeque<ParamId> = VecDeque::new();
+            queue.push_back(param);
+            visited.insert(param);
 
             while let Some(current) = queue.pop_front() {
-                component.insert(current.clone());
+                component.insert(current);
 
                 if let Some(neighbors) = adjacency.get(&current) {
-                    for neighbor in neighbors {
-                        if !visited.contains(neighbor) {
-                            visited.insert(neighbor.clone());
-                            queue.push_back(neighbor.clone());
+                    for &neighbor in neighbors {
+                        if !visited.contains(&neighbor) {
+                            visited.insert(neighbor);
+                            queue.push_back(neighbor);
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -293,19 +290,20 @@ mod tests {
     use super::*;
     use crate::distribution::{CategoricalDistribution, FloatDistribution, IntDistribution};
     use crate::param::ParamValue;
+    use crate::parameter::ParamId;
 
     fn create_trial(
         id: u64,
-        params: Vec<(&str, ParamValue, Distribution)>,
+        params: Vec<(ParamId, ParamValue, Distribution)>,
         value: f64,
     ) -> CompletedTrial {
         let mut param_map = HashMap::new();
         let mut dist_map = HashMap::new();
-        for (name, pv, dist) in params {
-            param_map.insert(name.to_string(), pv);
-            dist_map.insert(name.to_string(), dist);
+        for (param_id, pv, dist) in params {
+            param_map.insert(param_id, pv);
+            dist_map.insert(param_id, dist);
         }
-        CompletedTrial::new(id, param_map, dist_map, value)
+        CompletedTrial::new(id, param_map, dist_map, HashMap::new(), value)
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -317,6 +315,8 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_single_trial() {
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
         let dist_x = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 0.0,
             high: 1.0,
@@ -333,22 +333,24 @@ mod tests {
         let trial = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x.clone()),
-                ("y", ParamValue::Int(5), dist_y.clone()),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Int(5), dist_y.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
 
         let result = IntersectionSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial]);
         assert_eq!(result.len(), 2);
-        assert!(result.contains_key("x"));
-        assert!(result.contains_key("y"));
-        assert_eq!(result.get("x"), Some(&dist_x));
-        assert_eq!(result.get("y"), Some(&dist_y));
+        assert!(result.contains_key(&x_id));
+        assert!(result.contains_key(&y_id));
+        assert_eq!(result.get(&x_id), Some(&dist_x));
+        assert_eq!(result.get(&y_id), Some(&dist_y));
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_all_trials_same_params() {
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
         let dist_x = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 0.0,
             high: 1.0,
@@ -369,8 +371,8 @@ mod tests {
                 create_trial(
                     i,
                     vec![
-                        ("x", ParamValue::Float(val), dist_x.clone()),
-                        ("y", ParamValue::Float(val - 0.5), dist_y.clone()),
+                        (x_id, ParamValue::Float(val), dist_x.clone()),
+                        (y_id, ParamValue::Float(val - 0.5), dist_y.clone()),
                     ],
                     val * val,
                 )
@@ -379,12 +381,15 @@ mod tests {
 
         let result = IntersectionSearchSpace::calculate(&trials);
         assert_eq!(result.len(), 2);
-        assert!(result.contains_key("x"));
-        assert!(result.contains_key("y"));
+        assert!(result.contains_key(&x_id));
+        assert!(result.contains_key(&y_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_partial_overlap() {
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
+        let z_id = ParamId::new();
         let dist_x = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 0.0,
             high: 1.0,
@@ -408,8 +413,8 @@ mod tests {
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x.clone()),
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist_y.clone()),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist_y.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
@@ -418,8 +423,8 @@ mod tests {
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.7), dist_x.clone()),
-                ("z", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist_z.clone()),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.7), dist_x.clone()),
+                (z_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist_z.clone()),
             ],
             0.5,
         );
@@ -428,24 +433,26 @@ mod tests {
         let trial3 = create_trial(
             2,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist_x.clone()),
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist_y.clone()),
-                ("z", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist_z.clone()),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist_x.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist_y.clone()),
+                (z_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist_z.clone()),
             ],
             0.8,
         );
 
         let result = IntersectionSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial1, trial2, trial3]);
 
-        // Only "x" appears in all three trials
+        // Only x appears in all three trials
         assert_eq!(result.len(), 1);
-        assert!(result.contains_key("x"));
-        assert!(!result.contains_key("y"));
-        assert!(!result.contains_key("z"));
+        assert!(result.contains_key(&x_id));
+        assert!(!result.contains_key(&y_id));
+        assert!(!result.contains_key(&z_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_no_common_params() {
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
         let dist_x = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 0.0,
             high: 1.0,
@@ -460,10 +467,10 @@ mod tests {
         });
 
         // Trial 1: only x
-        let trial1 = create_trial(0, vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x.clone())], 1.0);
+        let trial1 = create_trial(0, vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x.clone())], 1.0);
 
         // Trial 2: only y
-        let trial2 = create_trial(1, vec![("y", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist_y.clone())], 0.5);
+        let trial2 = create_trial(1, vec![(y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist_y.clone())], 0.5);
 
         let result = IntersectionSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial1, trial2]);
 
@@ -473,6 +480,9 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_mixed_distribution_types() {
+        let lr_id = ParamId::new();
+        let n_layers_id = ParamId::new();
+        let optimizer_id = ParamId::new();
         let dist_float = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 0.0,
             high: 1.0,
@@ -490,9 +500,9 @@ mod tests {
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("learning_rate", ParamValue::Float(0.01), dist_float.clone()),
-                ("n_layers", ParamValue::Int(3), dist_int.clone()),
-                ("optimizer", ParamValue::Categorical(0), dist_cat.clone()),
+                (lr_id, ParamValue::Float(0.01), dist_float.clone()),
+                (n_layers_id, ParamValue::Int(3), dist_int.clone()),
+                (optimizer_id, ParamValue::Categorical(0), dist_cat.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
@@ -500,13 +510,9 @@ mod tests {
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                (
-                    "learning_rate",
-                    ParamValue::Float(0.001),
-                    dist_float.clone(),
-                ),
-                ("n_layers", ParamValue::Int(5), dist_int.clone()),
-                ("optimizer", ParamValue::Categorical(1), dist_cat.clone()),
+                (lr_id, ParamValue::Float(0.001), dist_float.clone()),
+                (n_layers_id, ParamValue::Int(5), dist_int.clone()),
+                (optimizer_id, ParamValue::Categorical(1), dist_cat.clone()),
             ],
             0.8,
         );
@@ -514,19 +520,20 @@ mod tests {
         let result = IntersectionSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial1, trial2]);
 
         assert_eq!(result.len(), 3);
+        assert!(matches!(result.get(&lr_id), Some(Distribution::Float(_))));
         assert!(matches!(
-            result.get("learning_rate"),
-            Some(Distribution::Float(_))
+            result.get(&n_layers_id),
+            Some(Distribution::Int(_))
         ));
-        assert!(matches!(result.get("n_layers"), Some(Distribution::Int(_))));
         assert!(matches!(
-            result.get("optimizer"),
+            result.get(&optimizer_id),
             Some(Distribution::Categorical(_))
         ));
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_distribution_from_first_trial() {
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
         // Test that when distributions differ, the first trial's distribution is used
         let dist_x_v1 = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 0.0,
@@ -543,13 +550,13 @@ mod tests {
 
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
-            vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x_v1.clone())],
+            vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist_x_v1.clone())],
             1.0,
         );
 
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
-            vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(5.0), dist_x_v2.clone())],
+            vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(5.0), dist_x_v2.clone())],
             0.5,
         );
 
@@ -557,13 +564,15 @@ mod tests {
 
         assert_eq!(result.len(), 1);
         // Should use the distribution from the first trial
-        assert_eq!(result.get("x"), Some(&dist_x_v1));
+        assert_eq!(result.get(&x_id), Some(&dist_x_v1));
     }
 
     #[test]
     fn test_many_trials_with_conditional_params() {
+        let lr_id = ParamId::new();
+        let use_dropout_id = ParamId::new();
+        let dropout_rate_id = ParamId::new();
         // Simulate a scenario with conditional parameters
-        // e.g., "use_dropout" is a bool, and "dropout_rate" only exists when use_dropout=true
         let dist_lr = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 1e-5,
             high: 1e-1,
@@ -582,14 +591,14 @@ mod tests {
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("lr", ParamValue::Float(0.01), dist_lr.clone()),
+                (lr_id, ParamValue::Float(0.01), dist_lr.clone()),
                 (
-                    "use_dropout",
+                    use_dropout_id,
                     ParamValue::Categorical(1),
                     dist_dropout.clone(),
                 ),
                 (
-                    "dropout_rate",
+                    dropout_rate_id,
                     ParamValue::Float(0.2),
                     dist_dropout_rate.clone(),
                 ),
@@ -601,9 +610,9 @@ mod tests {
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                ("lr", ParamValue::Float(0.001), dist_lr.clone()),
+                (lr_id, ParamValue::Float(0.001), dist_lr.clone()),
                 (
-                    "use_dropout",
+                    use_dropout_id,
                     ParamValue::Categorical(0),
                     dist_dropout.clone(),
                 ),
@@ -615,14 +624,14 @@ mod tests {
         let trial3 = create_trial(
             2,
             vec![
-                ("lr", ParamValue::Float(0.005), dist_lr.clone()),
+                (lr_id, ParamValue::Float(0.005), dist_lr.clone()),
                 (
-                    "use_dropout",
+                    use_dropout_id,
                     ParamValue::Categorical(1),
                     dist_dropout.clone(),
                 ),
                 (
-                    "dropout_rate",
+                    dropout_rate_id,
                     ParamValue::Float(0.3),
                     dist_dropout_rate.clone(),
                 ),
@@ -632,11 +641,11 @@ mod tests {
 
         let result = IntersectionSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial1, trial2, trial3]);
 
-        // Only "lr" and "use_dropout" appear in all trials
+        // Only lr and use_dropout appear in all trials
         assert_eq!(result.len(), 2);
-        assert!(result.contains_key("lr"));
-        assert!(result.contains_key("use_dropout"));
-        assert!(!result.contains_key("dropout_rate")); // Not in trial2
+        assert!(result.contains_key(&lr_id));
+        assert!(result.contains_key(&use_dropout_id));
+        assert!(!result.contains_key(&dropout_rate_id)); // Not in trial2
     }
 
     // ==================== GroupDecomposedSearchSpace Tests ====================
@@ -657,12 +666,13 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
-        let trial = create_trial(0, vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist)], 1.0);
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let trial = create_trial(0, vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist)], 1.0);
 
         let groups = GroupDecomposedSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial]);
 
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 1);
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("x"));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&x_id));
         assert_eq!(groups[0].len(), 1);
     }
 
@@ -675,12 +685,15 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
+        let z_id = ParamId::new();
         let trial = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
-                ("z", ParamValue::Float(0.7), dist),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
+                (z_id, ParamValue::Float(0.7), dist),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
@@ -690,9 +703,9 @@ mod tests {
         // All params appear together, so one group
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(groups[0].len(), 3);
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("x"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("y"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("z"));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&x_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&y_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&z_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -704,12 +717,17 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
+        let a_id = ParamId::new();
+        let b_id = ParamId::new();
+
         // Trial 1: x, y (group 1)
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
@@ -718,8 +736,8 @@ mod tests {
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                ("a", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
-                ("b", ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist),
+                (a_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
+                (b_id, ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist),
             ],
             0.5,
         );
@@ -730,8 +748,8 @@ mod tests {
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 2);
 
         // Find which group has x/y and which has a/b
-        let group_xy = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains("x"));
-        let group_ab = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains("a"));
+        let group_xy = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains(&x_id));
+        let group_ab = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains(&a_id));
 
         assert!(group_xy.is_some());
         assert!(group_ab.is_some());
@@ -740,12 +758,12 @@ mod tests {
         let group_ab = group_ab.expect("group with a should exist");
 
         assert_eq!(group_xy.len(), 2);
-        assert!(group_xy.contains("x"));
-        assert!(group_xy.contains("y"));
+        assert!(group_xy.contains(&x_id));
+        assert!(group_xy.contains(&y_id));
 
         assert_eq!(group_ab.len(), 2);
-        assert!(group_ab.contains("a"));
-        assert!(group_ab.contains("b"));
+        assert!(group_ab.contains(&a_id));
+        assert!(group_ab.contains(&b_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -757,12 +775,16 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
+        let z_id = ParamId::new();
+
         // Trial 1: x, y
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
@@ -771,8 +793,8 @@ mod tests {
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
-                ("z", ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
+                (z_id, ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist),
             ],
             0.5,
         );
@@ -782,9 +804,9 @@ mod tests {
         // All should be in one group due to transitive connection via y
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(groups[0].len(), 3);
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("x"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("y"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("z"));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&x_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&y_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&z_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -796,33 +818,35 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let a_id = ParamId::new();
+        let b_id = ParamId::new();
+        let c_id = ParamId::new();
+        let d_id = ParamId::new();
+
         // Create a chain: a-b, b-c, c-d
-        // Trial 1: a, b
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("a", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
-                ("b", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
+                (a_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
+                (b_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
 
-        // Trial 2: b, c
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                ("b", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
-                ("c", ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist.clone()),
+                (b_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
+                (c_id, ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist.clone()),
             ],
             0.5,
         );
 
-        // Trial 3: c, d
         let trial3 = create_trial(
             2,
             vec![
-                ("c", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
-                ("d", ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist),
+                (c_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
+                (d_id, ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist),
             ],
             0.3,
         );
@@ -832,10 +856,10 @@ mod tests {
         // All should be connected in one group
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(groups[0].len(), 4);
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("a"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("b"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("c"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("d"));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&a_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&b_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&c_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&d_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -847,10 +871,14 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
+        let z_id = ParamId::new();
+
         // Each trial has exactly one parameter (all isolated)
-        let trial1 = create_trial(0, vec![("x", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone())], 1.0);
-        let trial2 = create_trial(1, vec![("y", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone())], 0.5);
-        let trial3 = create_trial(2, vec![("z", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist)], 0.3);
+        let trial1 = create_trial(0, vec![(x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone())], 1.0);
+        let trial2 = create_trial(1, vec![(y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone())], 0.5);
+        let trial3 = create_trial(2, vec![(z_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist)], 0.3);
 
         let groups = GroupDecomposedSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial1, trial2, trial3]);
 
@@ -861,10 +889,10 @@ mod tests {
         }
 
         // Verify all params are covered
-        let all_params: HashSet<String> = groups.iter().flatten().cloned().collect();
-        assert!(all_params.contains("x"));
-        assert!(all_params.contains("y"));
-        assert!(all_params.contains("z"));
+        let all_params: HashSet<ParamId> = groups.iter().flatten().copied().collect();
+        assert!(all_params.contains(&x_id));
+        assert!(all_params.contains(&y_id));
+        assert!(all_params.contains(&z_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -876,51 +904,54 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let x_id = ParamId::new();
+        let y_id = ParamId::new();
+        let z_id = ParamId::new();
+        let a_id = ParamId::new();
+        let b_id = ParamId::new();
+        let w_id = ParamId::new();
+
         // Group 1: x, y, z connected
         // Group 2: a, b connected
         // w is isolated
 
-        // Trial 1: x, y
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("x", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
+                (x_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
 
-        // Trial 2: y, z
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                ("y", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
-                ("z", ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist.clone()),
+                (y_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
+                (z_id, ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist.clone()),
             ],
             0.5,
         );
 
-        // Trial 3: a, b
         let trial3 = create_trial(
             2,
             vec![
-                ("a", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
-                ("b", ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist.clone()),
+                (a_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
+                (b_id, ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist.clone()),
             ],
             0.3,
         );
 
-        // Trial 4: w (isolated)
-        let trial4 = create_trial(3, vec![("w", ParamValue::Float(0.7), dist)], 0.2);
+        let trial4 = create_trial(3, vec![(w_id, ParamValue::Float(0.7), dist)], 0.2);
 
         let groups = GroupDecomposedSearchSpace::calculate(&[trial1, trial2, trial3, trial4]);
 
         // Should have 3 groups: {x,y,z}, {a,b}, {w}
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 3);
 
-        let group_xyz = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains("x"));
-        let group_ab = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains("a"));
-        let group_w = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains("w"));
+        let group_xyz = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains(&x_id));
+        let group_ab = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains(&a_id));
+        let group_w = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains(&w_id));
 
         assert!(group_xyz.is_some());
         assert!(group_ab.is_some());
@@ -928,18 +959,18 @@ mod tests {
 
         let group_xyz = group_xyz.expect("group with x should exist");
         assert_eq!(group_xyz.len(), 3);
-        assert!(group_xyz.contains("x"));
-        assert!(group_xyz.contains("y"));
-        assert!(group_xyz.contains("z"));
+        assert!(group_xyz.contains(&x_id));
+        assert!(group_xyz.contains(&y_id));
+        assert!(group_xyz.contains(&z_id));
 
         let group_ab = group_ab.expect("group with a should exist");
         assert_eq!(group_ab.len(), 2);
-        assert!(group_ab.contains("a"));
-        assert!(group_ab.contains("b"));
+        assert!(group_ab.contains(&a_id));
+        assert!(group_ab.contains(&b_id));
 
         let group_w = group_w.expect("group with w should exist");
         assert_eq!(group_w.len(), 1);
-        assert!(group_w.contains("w"));
+        assert!(group_w.contains(&w_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -951,14 +982,19 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let a_id = ParamId::new();
+        let b_id = ParamId::new();
+        let c_id = ParamId::new();
+        let d_id = ParamId::new();
+
         // All params in single trial
         let trial = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("a", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
-                ("b", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
-                ("c", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
-                ("d", ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist),
+                (a_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
+                (b_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
+                (c_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
+                (d_id, ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
@@ -972,6 +1008,9 @@ mod tests {
 
     #[test]
     fn test_group_with_mixed_distribution_types() {
+        let lr_id = ParamId::new();
+        let n_layers_id = ParamId::new();
+        let optimizer_id = ParamId::new();
         let dist_float = Distribution::Float(FloatDistribution {
             low: 0.0,
             high: 1.0,
@@ -991,23 +1030,23 @@ mod tests {
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("learning_rate", ParamValue::Float(0.01), dist_float.clone()),
-                ("n_layers", ParamValue::Int(3), dist_int.clone()),
+                (lr_id, ParamValue::Float(0.01), dist_float.clone()),
+                (n_layers_id, ParamValue::Int(3), dist_int.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
 
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
-            vec![("optimizer", ParamValue::Categorical(1), dist_cat)],
+            vec![(optimizer_id, ParamValue::Categorical(1), dist_cat)],
             0.5,
         );
 
         let trial3 = create_trial(
             2,
             vec![
-                ("learning_rate", ParamValue::Float(0.001), dist_float),
-                ("n_layers", ParamValue::Int(5), dist_int),
+                (lr_id, ParamValue::Float(0.001), dist_float),
+                (n_layers_id, ParamValue::Int(5), dist_int),
             ],
             0.8,
         );
@@ -1017,20 +1056,20 @@ mod tests {
         // Should have 2 groups: {learning_rate, n_layers} and {optimizer}
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 2);
 
-        let group_lr = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains("learning_rate"));
-        let group_opt = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains("optimizer"));
+        let group_lr = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains(&lr_id));
+        let group_opt = groups.iter().find(|g| g.contains(&optimizer_id));
 
         assert!(group_lr.is_some());
         assert!(group_opt.is_some());
 
         let group_lr = group_lr.expect("group with learning_rate should exist");
         assert_eq!(group_lr.len(), 2);
-        assert!(group_lr.contains("learning_rate"));
-        assert!(group_lr.contains("n_layers"));
+        assert!(group_lr.contains(&lr_id));
+        assert!(group_lr.contains(&n_layers_id));
 
         let group_opt = group_opt.expect("group with optimizer should exist");
         assert_eq!(group_opt.len(), 1);
-        assert!(group_opt.contains("optimizer"));
+        assert!(group_opt.contains(&optimizer_id));
     }
 
     #[test]
@@ -1042,15 +1081,17 @@ mod tests {
             step: None,
         });
 
+        let center_id = ParamId::new();
+        let a_id = ParamId::new();
+        let b_id = ParamId::new();
+        let c_id = ParamId::new();
+
         // Star topology: center connects to all others
-        // Trial 1: center, a
-        // Trial 2: center, b
-        // Trial 3: center, c
         let trial1 = create_trial(
             0,
             vec![
-                ("center", ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
-                ("a", ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
+                (center_id, ParamValue::Float(0.1), dist.clone()),
+                (a_id, ParamValue::Float(0.2), dist.clone()),
             ],
             1.0,
         );
@@ -1058,8 +1099,8 @@ mod tests {
         let trial2 = create_trial(
             1,
             vec![
-                ("center", ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
-                ("b", ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist.clone()),
+                (center_id, ParamValue::Float(0.3), dist.clone()),
+                (b_id, ParamValue::Float(0.4), dist.clone()),
             ],
             0.5,
         );
@@ -1067,8 +1108,8 @@ mod tests {
         let trial3 = create_trial(
             2,
             vec![
-                ("center", ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
-                ("c", ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist),
+                (center_id, ParamValue::Float(0.5), dist.clone()),
+                (c_id, ParamValue::Float(0.6), dist),
             ],
             0.3,
         );
@@ -1078,9 +1119,9 @@ mod tests {
         // All connected via center
         assert_eq!(groups.len(), 1);
         assert_eq!(groups[0].len(), 4);
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("center"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("a"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("b"));
-        assert!(groups[0].contains("c"));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&center_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&a_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&b_id));
+        assert!(groups[0].contains(&c_id));
     }
 }

src/types.rs

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 
 /// The direction of optimization.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub enum Direction {
     /// Minimize the objective value.
     Minimize,
@@ -11,6 +12,7 @@ pub enum Direction {
 
 /// The state of a trial in its lifecycle.
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 pub enum TrialState {
     /// The trial is currently running.
     Running,
@@ -18,4 +20,6 @@ pub enum TrialState {
     Complete,
     /// The trial failed with an error.
     Failed,
+    /// The trial was pruned (stopped early).
+    Pruned,
 }

tests/async_tests.rs

@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 
 #![cfg(feature = "async")]
 
+use optimizer::parameter::{FloatParam, Parameter};
 use optimizer::sampler::random::RandomSampler;
 use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
 use optimizer::{Direction, Error, Study};
@@ -13,10 +14,15 @@ async fn test_optimize_async_basic() {
     let sampler = RandomSampler::with_seed(42);
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_async(10, |mut trial| async move {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -10.0, 10.0)?;
-            Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x))
+        .optimize_async(10, move |mut trial| {
+            let x_param = x_param.clone();
+            async move {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x))
+            }
         })
         .await
         .expect("async optimization should succeed");
@@ -27,7 +33,7 @@ async fn test_optimize_async_basic() {
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_optimize_async_with_sampler() {
+async fn test_optimize_async_with_tpe() {
     let sampler = TpeSampler::builder()
         .seed(42)
         .n_startup_trials(5)
@@ -36,10 +42,15 @@ async fn test_optimize_async_with_sampler() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_async_with_sampler(15, |mut trial| async move {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-            Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x))
+        .optimize_async(15, move |mut trial| {
+            let x_param = x_param.clone();
+            async move {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x))
+            }
         })
         .await
         .expect("async optimization with sampler should succeed");
@@ -54,10 +65,15 @@ async fn test_optimize_parallel() {
     let sampler = RandomSampler::with_seed(42);
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_parallel(20, 4, |mut trial| async move {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -10.0, 10.0)?;
-            Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x))
+        .optimize_parallel(20, 4, move |mut trial| {
+            let x_param = x_param.clone();
+            async move {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x))
+            }
         })
         .await
         .expect("parallel optimization should succeed");
@@ -66,7 +82,7 @@ async fn test_optimize_parallel() {
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
-async fn test_optimize_parallel_with_sampler() {
+async fn test_optimize_parallel_with_tpe() {
     let sampler = TpeSampler::builder()
         .seed(42)
         .n_startup_trials(5)
@@ -75,11 +91,18 @@ async fn test_optimize_parallel_with_sampler() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+    let y_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_parallel_with_sampler(15, 3, |mut trial| async move {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-            let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-            Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x + y * y))
+        .optimize_parallel(15, 3, move |mut trial| {
+            let x_param = x_param.clone();
+            let y_param = y_param.clone();
+            async move {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+                let y = y_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x * x + y * y))
+            }
         })
         .await
         .expect("parallel optimization with sampler should succeed");
@@ -105,6 +128,7 @@ async fn test_optimize_async_all_failures() {
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
+#[allow(deprecated)]
 async fn test_optimize_async_with_sampler_all_failures() {
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
 
@@ -139,6 +163,7 @@ async fn test_optimize_parallel_all_failures() {
 }
 
 #[tokio::test]
+#[allow(deprecated)]
 async fn test_optimize_parallel_with_sampler_all_failures() {
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
 
@@ -162,12 +187,15 @@ async fn test_optimize_async_partial_failures() {
 
     let counter = std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize::new(0);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_async(10, |mut trial| {
+        .optimize_async(10, move |mut trial| {
             let count = counter.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst);
+            let x_param = x_param.clone();
             async move {
                 if count.is_multiple_of(2) {
-                    let x = trial.suggest_float("x", 0.0, 10.0)?;
+                    let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
                     Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x))
                 } else {
                     Err(Error::NoCompletedTrials) // Use as error type
@@ -186,11 +214,16 @@ async fn test_optimize_parallel_high_concurrency() {
     let sampler = RandomSampler::with_seed(42);
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0);
+
     // Run with concurrency higher than n_trials
     study
-        .optimize_parallel(5, 10, |mut trial| async move {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", 0.0, 10.0)?;
-            Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x))
+        .optimize_parallel(5, 10, move |mut trial| {
+            let x_param = x_param.clone();
+            async move {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x))
+            }
         })
         .await
         .expect("should handle high concurrency");
@@ -203,11 +236,16 @@ async fn test_optimize_parallel_single_concurrency() {
     let sampler = RandomSampler::with_seed(42);
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0);
+
     // Run with concurrency of 1 (sequential)
     study
-        .optimize_parallel(10, 1, |mut trial| async move {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", 0.0, 10.0)?;
-            Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x))
+        .optimize_parallel(10, 1, move |mut trial| {
+            let x_param = x_param.clone();
+            async move {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>((trial, x))
+            }
         })
         .await
         .expect("should work with single concurrency");

tests/bohb_integration.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+//! Integration tests for the BOHB sampler.
+
+#![allow(
+    clippy::cast_sign_loss,
+    clippy::cast_precision_loss,
+    clippy::cast_possible_truncation
+)]
+
+use optimizer::parameter::{FloatParam, Parameter};
+use optimizer::sampler::bohb::BohbSampler;
+use optimizer::{Direction, Error, Study, TrialPruned};
+
+#[test]
+fn bohb_converges_on_quadratic() {
+    let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+        .min_resource(1)
+        .max_resource(9)
+        .reduction_factor(3)
+        .min_points_in_model(5)
+        .seed(42)
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let pruner = bohb.matching_pruner(Direction::Minimize);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler_and_pruner(Direction::Minimize, bohb, pruner);
+
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(60, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+
+            // Report intermediate values at budget steps 1, 3, 9
+            let obj = (x - 3.0).powi(2);
+            // Simulate budget-based evaluation with noise decreasing at higher budgets
+            trial.report(1, obj + 5.0);
+            trial.report(3, obj + 1.0);
+            trial.report(9, obj);
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>(obj)
+        })
+        .expect("optimization should succeed");
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().expect("should have trials");
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 10.0,
+        "BOHB should find a reasonable solution, got {}",
+        best.value
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn bohb_with_pruning() {
+    let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+        .min_resource(1)
+        .max_resource(27)
+        .reduction_factor(3)
+        .min_points_in_model(3)
+        .seed(123)
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let pruner = bohb.matching_pruner(Direction::Minimize);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler_and_pruner(Direction::Minimize, bohb, pruner);
+
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(40, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let obj = x * x;
+
+            // Report at each rung step and check for pruning
+            for &step in &[1u64, 3, 9, 27] {
+                let noisy_obj = obj + 10.0 / step as f64;
+                trial.report(step, noisy_obj);
+
+                if trial.should_prune() {
+                    return Err(TrialPruned.into());
+                }
+            }
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>(obj)
+        })
+        .expect("optimization should succeed");
+
+    // Verify we have completed trials
+    let best = study.best_trial().expect("should have at least one trial");
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 25.0,
+        "best value {} should be reasonable",
+        best.value
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn bohb_uses_budget_conditioned_history() {
+    // Verify that BOHB conditions on budget level by testing that samples
+    // are influenced by intermediate values, not just final values.
+    let bohb = BohbSampler::builder()
+        .min_resource(1)
+        .max_resource(9)
+        .reduction_factor(3)
+        .min_points_in_model(3)
+        .seed(42)
+        .build()
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let pruner = bohb.matching_pruner(Direction::Minimize);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler_and_pruner(Direction::Minimize, bohb, pruner);
+
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(30, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            // Intermediate values that guide optimization toward x=2
+            trial.report(1, (x - 2.0).powi(2) + 1.0);
+            trial.report(3, (x - 2.0).powi(2) + 0.5);
+            trial.report(9, (x - 2.0).powi(2));
+
+            Ok::<_, Error>((x - 2.0).powi(2))
+        })
+        .expect("optimization should succeed");
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    let best_x: f64 = best.get(&x_param).unwrap();
+    // Should find x reasonably close to 2.0
+    assert!(
+        (best_x - 2.0).abs() < 5.0,
+        "BOHB should explore near x=2, got x={best_x}"
+    );
+}

tests/cma_es_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+#![cfg(feature = "cma-es")]
+
+use optimizer::prelude::*;
+use optimizer::sampler::cma_es::CmaEsSampler;
+
+#[test]
+fn sphere_function() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(42);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("y");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(200, |trial| {
+            let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            let yv = y.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, Error>(xv * xv + yv * yv)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 1.0,
+        "sphere best value should be < 1.0, got {}",
+        best.value
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn rosenbrock_function() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::builder().population_size(20).seed(42).build();
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("y");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(300, |trial| {
+            let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            let yv = y.suggest(trial)?;
+            let val = (1.0 - xv).powi(2) + 100.0 * (yv - xv * xv).powi(2);
+            Ok::<_, Error>(val)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    // Rosenbrock minimum is 0 at (1, 1); we just check reasonable convergence
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 50.0,
+        "rosenbrock best value should be < 50.0, got {}",
+        best.value
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn bounds_respected() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(123);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 3.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0).name("y");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(100, |trial| {
+            let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            let yv = y.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, Error>(xv + yv)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    for trial in study.trials() {
+        let xv: f64 = trial.get(&x).unwrap();
+        let yv: f64 = trial.get(&y).unwrap();
+        assert!((-2.0..=3.0).contains(&xv), "x = {xv} out of bounds [-2, 3]");
+        assert!((0.0..=10.0).contains(&yv), "y = {yv} out of bounds [0, 10]");
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn mixed_params_float_and_categorical() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(42);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("x");
+    let cat = CategoricalParam::new(vec!["a", "b", "c"]).name("cat");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(50, |trial| {
+            let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            let cv = cat.suggest(trial)?;
+            let penalty = match cv {
+                "a" => 0.0,
+                "b" => 1.0,
+                _ => 2.0,
+            };
+            Ok::<_, Error>(xv * xv + penalty)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    // Should find a reasonable value
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 10.0,
+        "best value should be < 10.0, got {}",
+        best.value
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn seeded_reproducibility() {
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("y");
+
+    let run = |seed: u64| {
+        let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(seed);
+        let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+        study
+            .optimize(50, |trial| {
+                let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+                let yv = y.suggest(trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>(xv * xv + yv * yv)
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        study.trials().iter().map(|t| t.value).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+
+    let results1 = run(42);
+    let results2 = run(42);
+    assert_eq!(results1, results2, "same seed should produce same results");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn different_seeds_different_results() {
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("y");
+
+    let run = |seed: u64| {
+        let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(seed);
+        let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+        study
+            .optimize(20, |trial| {
+                let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+                let yv = y.suggest(trial)?;
+                Ok::<_, Error>(xv * xv + yv * yv)
+            })
+            .unwrap();
+        study.trials().iter().map(|t| t.value).collect::<Vec<_>>()
+    };
+
+    let results1 = run(42);
+    let results2 = run(99);
+    assert_ne!(
+        results1, results2,
+        "different seeds should produce different results"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn single_dimension() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(42);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0).name("x");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(100, |trial| {
+            let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, Error>((xv - 3.0).powi(2))
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 1.0,
+        "1-D optimization should converge, got {}",
+        best.value
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn integer_params() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(42);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let n = IntParam::new(1, 20).name("n");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(100, |trial| {
+            let nv = n.suggest(trial)?;
+            // Minimum at n = 10
+            Ok::<_, Error>(((nv - 10) * (nv - 10)) as f64)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    let best_n: i64 = best.get(&n).unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        (1..=20).contains(&best_n),
+        "integer value {best_n} out of bounds"
+    );
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 10.0,
+        "integer optimization should converge, got {}",
+        best.value
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn log_scale_params() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::with_seed(42);
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let lr = FloatParam::new(1e-5, 1.0).log_scale().name("lr");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(100, |trial| {
+            let lrv = lr.suggest(trial)?;
+            // Minimum at lr = 0.01
+            Ok::<_, Error>((lrv.ln() - 0.01_f64.ln()).powi(2))
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    for trial in study.trials() {
+        let lrv: f64 = trial.get(&lr).unwrap();
+        assert!(
+            (1e-5..=1.0).contains(&lrv),
+            "log-scale value {lrv} out of bounds"
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn custom_population_size_and_sigma() {
+    let sampler = CmaEsSampler::builder()
+        .sigma0(1.0)
+        .population_size(10)
+        .seed(42)
+        .build();
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
+
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("y");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(100, |trial| {
+            let xv = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            let yv = y.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, Error>(xv * xv + yv * yv)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert!(
+        best.value < 5.0,
+        "custom config optimization should work, got {}",
+        best.value
+    );
+}

tests/derive_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+use optimizer::Trial;
+use optimizer::parameter::{EnumParam, Parameter};
+use optimizer_derive::Categorical;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Categorical)]
+enum Color {
+    Red,
+    Green,
+    Blue,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Categorical)]
+enum SingleVariant {
+    Only,
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn derive_categorical_n_choices() {
+    use optimizer::parameter::Categorical;
+    assert_eq!(Color::N_CHOICES, 3);
+    assert_eq!(SingleVariant::N_CHOICES, 1);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn derive_categorical_roundtrip() {
+    use optimizer::parameter::Categorical;
+    for i in 0..Color::N_CHOICES {
+        let val = Color::from_index(i);
+        assert_eq!(val.to_index(), i);
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn derive_categorical_values() {
+    use optimizer::parameter::Categorical;
+    assert_eq!(Color::from_index(0), Color::Red);
+    assert_eq!(Color::from_index(1), Color::Green);
+    assert_eq!(Color::from_index(2), Color::Blue);
+    assert_eq!(Color::Red.to_index(), 0);
+    assert_eq!(Color::Green.to_index(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(Color::Blue.to_index(), 2);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn derive_categorical_with_enum_param() {
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let param = EnumParam::<Color>::new();
+    let color = param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!([Color::Red, Color::Green, Color::Blue].contains(&color));
+
+    // Cached (same param id)
+    let color2 = param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(color, color2);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn derive_categorical_suggest_via_trial() {
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let color = trial.suggest_param(&EnumParam::<Color>::new()).unwrap();
+    assert!([Color::Red, Color::Green, Color::Blue].contains(&color));
+}

tests/importance_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+use optimizer::parameter::{CategoricalParam, FloatParam, IntParam, Parameter};
+use optimizer::{Direction, Study};
+
+#[test]
+fn known_perfect_correlation() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 100.0).name("x");
+
+    // Objective = x, so perfect correlation.
+    for _ in 0..30 {
+        let mut trial = study.ask();
+        let xv = x.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(xv));
+    }
+
+    let importance = study.param_importance();
+    assert_eq!(importance.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(importance[0].0, "x");
+    assert!(
+        (importance[0].1 - 1.0).abs() < 1e-10,
+        "single param should be 1.0"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn no_effect_parameter() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 100.0).name("x");
+    let noise = FloatParam::new(0.0, 100.0).name("noise");
+
+    // Objective depends only on x; noise is unused in objective.
+    for _ in 0..50 {
+        let mut trial = study.ask();
+        let xv = x.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        let _nv = noise.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(xv));
+    }
+
+    let importance = study.param_importance();
+    assert_eq!(importance.len(), 2);
+    // x should have much higher importance than noise.
+    let x_score = importance.iter().find(|(l, _)| l == "x").unwrap().1;
+    let noise_score = importance.iter().find(|(l, _)| l == "noise").unwrap().1;
+    assert!(
+        x_score > noise_score,
+        "x ({x_score}) should outrank noise ({noise_score})"
+    );
+    // x should dominate
+    assert!(x_score > 0.7, "x importance {x_score} should be dominant");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn multiple_parameters_varying_importance() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0).name("y");
+
+    // Objective = 10*x + 0.01*y → x should be far more important.
+    for _ in 0..50 {
+        let mut trial = study.ask();
+        let xv = x.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        let yv = y.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(10.0 * xv + 0.01 * yv));
+    }
+
+    let importance = study.param_importance();
+    assert_eq!(importance.len(), 2);
+    assert_eq!(importance[0].0, "x", "x should rank first");
+    assert!(importance[0].1 > importance[1].1);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn fewer_than_two_trials_returns_empty() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+    // 0 trials
+    assert!(study.param_importance().is_empty());
+
+    // 1 trial
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0).name("x");
+    let mut trial = study.ask();
+    let xv = x.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(xv));
+    assert!(study.param_importance().is_empty());
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn int_parameter() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let n = IntParam::new(1, 100).name("n");
+
+    for _ in 0..30 {
+        let mut trial = study.ask();
+        let nv = n.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(nv as f64));
+    }
+
+    let importance = study.param_importance();
+    assert_eq!(importance.len(), 1);
+    assert_eq!(importance[0].0, "n");
+    assert!(importance[0].1 > 0.9);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn categorical_parameter() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let cat = CategoricalParam::new(vec!["a", "b", "c"]).name("cat");
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 100.0).name("x");
+
+    // Objective depends only on x; categorical is random noise.
+    for _ in 0..50 {
+        let mut trial = study.ask();
+        let _c = cat.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        let xv = x.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(xv));
+    }
+
+    let importance = study.param_importance();
+    assert_eq!(importance.len(), 2);
+    let x_score = importance.iter().find(|(l, _)| l == "x").unwrap().1;
+    assert!(x_score > 0.5, "x should dominate over categorical noise");
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn normalization_sums_to_one() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0).name("x");
+    let y = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0).name("y");
+    let z = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0).name("z");
+
+    for _ in 0..50 {
+        let mut trial = study.ask();
+        let xv = x.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        let yv = y.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        let zv = z.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(xv + 0.5 * yv + 0.1 * zv));
+    }
+
+    let importance = study.param_importance();
+    let sum: f64 = importance.iter().map(|(_, s)| *s).sum();
+    assert!(
+        (sum - 1.0).abs() < 1e-10,
+        "scores should sum to 1.0, got {sum}"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn label_when_unnamed_uses_debug() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    // No .name() call → label defaults to Debug representation.
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 10.0);
+
+    for _ in 0..10 {
+        let mut trial = study.ask();
+        let xv = x.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+        study.tell(trial, Ok::<_, &str>(xv));
+    }
+
+    let importance = study.param_importance();
+    assert_eq!(importance.len(), 1);
+    assert!(
+        importance[0].0.starts_with("FloatParam"),
+        "expected Debug label, got {:?}",
+        importance[0].0
+    );
+}

tests/median_pruner_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use optimizer::Direction;
+use optimizer::pruner::{MedianPruner, Pruner};
+use optimizer::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+
+/// Helper to build a completed trial with given intermediate values.
+fn trial_with_values(id: u64, intermediate_values: Vec<(u64, f64)>) -> CompletedTrial {
+    CompletedTrial::with_intermediate_values(
+        id,
+        HashMap::new(),
+        HashMap::new(),
+        HashMap::new(),
+        0.0,
+        intermediate_values,
+        HashMap::new(),
+    )
+}
+
+// --- Minimize direction ---
+
+#[test]
+fn prune_when_worse_than_median_minimize() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    // 3 completed trials with values at step 2: [1.0, 2.0, 3.0] => median = 2.0
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 0.5), (1, 0.8), (2, 1.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 0.6), (1, 1.5), (2, 2.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 0.7), (1, 2.0), (2, 3.0)]),
+    ];
+    // Current trial value at step 2 is 2.5 > median 2.0 => prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 0.5), (1, 1.0), (2, 2.5)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(3, 2, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_when_better_than_median_minimize() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 0.5), (1, 0.8), (2, 1.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 0.6), (1, 1.5), (2, 2.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 0.7), (1, 2.0), (2, 3.0)]),
+    ];
+    // Current trial value at step 2 is 1.5 < median 2.0 => don't prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 0.5), (1, 1.0), (2, 1.5)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(3, 2, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+// --- Maximize direction ---
+
+#[test]
+fn prune_when_worse_than_median_maximize() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Maximize);
+    // Values at step 1: [5.0, 7.0, 9.0] => median = 7.0
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 3.0), (1, 5.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 4.0), (1, 7.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 5.0), (1, 9.0)]),
+    ];
+    // Current value 6.0 < median 7.0 => prune (worse for maximize)
+    let current = vec![(0, 4.0), (1, 6.0)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(3, 1, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_when_better_than_median_maximize() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Maximize);
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 3.0), (1, 5.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 4.0), (1, 7.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 5.0), (1, 9.0)]),
+    ];
+    // Current value 8.0 > median 7.0 => don't prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 4.0), (1, 8.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(3, 1, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+// --- Warmup steps ---
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_during_warmup() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).n_warmup_steps(5);
+    let completed = vec![trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0), (1, 1.0), (2, 1.0)])];
+    // Step 2 < warmup 5 => never prune, even if value is terrible
+    let current = vec![(0, 100.0), (1, 100.0), (2, 100.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 2, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn prune_after_warmup() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).n_warmup_steps(2);
+    let completed = vec![trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0), (1, 1.0), (2, 1.0)])];
+    // Step 2 >= warmup 2 => pruning allowed; current 100.0 > median 1.0
+    let current = vec![(0, 100.0), (1, 100.0), (2, 100.0)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(1, 2, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+// --- n_min_trials ---
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_when_fewer_than_n_min_trials() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).n_min_trials(3);
+    // Only 2 completed trials — below threshold of 3
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 2.0)]),
+    ];
+    let current = vec![(0, 100.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(2, 0, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn prune_when_at_least_n_min_trials() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize).n_min_trials(3);
+    // 3 completed trials with step 0: [1.0, 2.0, 3.0] => median 2.0
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 2.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 3.0)]),
+    ];
+    // 5.0 > median 2.0 => prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 5.0)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(3, 0, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+// --- No completed trials with values at step ---
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_when_no_completed_trials_at_step() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    // Completed trials only have values at step 0, not step 5
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 2.0)]),
+    ];
+    let current = vec![(0, 0.5), (5, 100.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(2, 5, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+// --- Median calculation edge cases ---
+
+#[test]
+fn correct_median_with_even_number_of_trials() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    // 4 trials at step 0: [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0] => median = 2.5
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 2.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 3.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(3, vec![(0, 4.0)]),
+    ];
+    // 2.6 > 2.5 => prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 2.6)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(4, 0, &current, &completed));
+    // 2.4 < 2.5 => don't prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 2.4)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(4, 0, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn correct_median_with_odd_number_of_trials() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    // 5 trials at step 0: [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0] => median = 3.0
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 2.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 3.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(3, vec![(0, 4.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(4, vec![(0, 5.0)]),
+    ];
+    // 3.5 > 3.0 => prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 3.5)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(5, 0, &current, &completed));
+    // 2.5 < 3.0 => don't prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 2.5)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(5, 0, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+// --- Non-contiguous step numbers ---
+
+#[test]
+fn works_with_non_contiguous_steps() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    // Steps are 0, 10, 100 — non-contiguous
+    let completed = vec![
+        trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0), (10, 2.0), (100, 3.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 1.5), (10, 2.5), (100, 4.0)]),
+        trial_with_values(2, vec![(0, 2.0), (10, 3.0), (100, 5.0)]),
+    ];
+    // At step 100: [3.0, 4.0, 5.0] => median = 4.0
+    let current = vec![(0, 1.0), (10, 2.0), (100, 4.5)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(3, 100, &current, &completed));
+
+    let current = vec![(0, 1.0), (10, 2.0), (100, 3.5)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(3, 100, &current, &completed));
+}
+
+// --- No intermediate values for current trial ---
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_when_no_intermediate_values() {
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let completed = vec![trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 1.0)])];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(1, 0, &[], &completed));
+}
+
+// --- Pruned trials are excluded from median calculation ---
+
+#[test]
+fn pruned_trials_excluded_from_median() {
+    use optimizer::TrialState;
+
+    let pruner = MedianPruner::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+    let mut pruned = trial_with_values(0, vec![(0, 0.1)]);
+    pruned.state = TrialState::Pruned;
+
+    // Only the completed trial (value 5.0) counts. Pruned trial (0.1) is excluded.
+    let completed = vec![pruned, trial_with_values(1, vec![(0, 5.0)])];
+
+    // 3.0 < 5.0 => don't prune (only 1 completed trial with median 5.0)
+    let current = vec![(0, 3.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(2, 0, &current, &completed));
+
+    // 6.0 > 5.0 => prune
+    let current = vec![(0, 6.0)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(2, 0, &current, &completed));
+}

tests/multivariate_tpe_integration.rs

@@ -9,8 +9,8 @@
     clippy::cast_possible_truncation
 )]
 
-use optimizer::sampler::MultivariateTpeSampler;
-use optimizer::sampler::tpe::TpeSampler;
+use optimizer::parameter::{CategoricalParam, FloatParam, IntParam, Parameter};
+use optimizer::sampler::tpe::{MultivariateTpeSampler, TpeSampler};
 use optimizer::{Direction, Error, Study};
 
 // =============================================================================
@@ -51,10 +51,13 @@ fn test_multivariate_tpe_rosenbrock_finds_good_solution() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 2.0);
+    let y_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 4.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_with_sampler(100, |trial| {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -2.0, 2.0)?;
-            let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -2.0, 4.0)?;
+        .optimize(100, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
             Ok::<_, Error>(rosenbrock(x, y))
         })
         .expect("optimization should succeed");
@@ -83,10 +86,13 @@ fn test_independent_tpe_rosenbrock() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 2.0);
+    let y_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 4.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_with_sampler(100, |trial| {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -2.0, 2.0)?;
-            let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -2.0, 4.0)?;
+        .optimize(100, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
             Ok::<_, Error>(rosenbrock(x, y))
         })
         .expect("optimization should succeed");
@@ -123,10 +129,13 @@ fn test_multivariate_tpe_outperforms_on_correlated_problem() {
 
         let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, multivariate_sampler);
 
+        let x_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 2.0);
+        let y_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 4.0);
+
         study
-            .optimize_with_sampler(n_trials, |trial| {
-                let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -2.0, 2.0)?;
-                let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -2.0, 4.0)?;
+            .optimize(n_trials, |trial| {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+                let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
                 Ok::<_, Error>(rosenbrock(x, y))
             })
             .unwrap();
@@ -143,10 +152,13 @@ fn test_multivariate_tpe_outperforms_on_correlated_problem() {
 
         let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, independent_sampler);
 
+        let x_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 2.0);
+        let y_param = FloatParam::new(-2.0, 4.0);
+
         study
-            .optimize_with_sampler(n_trials, |trial| {
-                let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -2.0, 2.0)?;
-                let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -2.0, 4.0)?;
+            .optimize(n_trials, |trial| {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+                let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
                 Ok::<_, Error>(rosenbrock(x, y))
             })
             .unwrap();
@@ -202,10 +214,13 @@ fn test_multivariate_tpe_independent_problem() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+    let y_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_with_sampler(50, |trial| {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-            let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -5.0, 5.0)?;
+        .optimize(50, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
             Ok::<_, Error>(sphere(x, y))
         })
         .expect("optimization should succeed");
@@ -231,10 +246,13 @@ fn test_independent_tpe_independent_problem() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+    let y_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_with_sampler(50, |trial| {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-            let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -5.0, 5.0)?;
+        .optimize(50, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
             Ok::<_, Error>(sphere(x, y))
         })
         .expect("optimization should succeed");
@@ -268,10 +286,13 @@ fn test_both_samplers_work_on_independent_problem() {
 
         let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+        let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+        let y_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
         study
-            .optimize_with_sampler(n_trials, |trial| {
-                let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-                let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -5.0, 5.0)?;
+            .optimize(n_trials, |trial| {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+                let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
                 Ok::<_, Error>(sphere(x, y))
             })
             .unwrap();
@@ -287,10 +308,13 @@ fn test_both_samplers_work_on_independent_problem() {
 
         let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+        let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+        let y_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
         study
-            .optimize_with_sampler(n_trials, |trial| {
-                let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-                let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -5.0, 5.0)?;
+            .optimize(n_trials, |trial| {
+                let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+                let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
                 Ok::<_, Error>(sphere(x, y))
             })
             .unwrap();
@@ -332,10 +356,13 @@ fn test_multivariate_tpe_with_group_decomposition() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+    let y_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+
     study
-        .optimize_with_sampler(50, |trial| {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-            let y = trial.suggest_float("y", -5.0, 5.0)?;
+        .optimize(50, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let y = y_param.suggest(trial)?;
             Ok::<_, Error>(sphere(x, y))
         })
         .expect("optimization should succeed");
@@ -364,11 +391,15 @@ fn test_multivariate_tpe_mixed_parameter_types() {
 
     let study: Study<f64> = Study::with_sampler(Direction::Minimize, sampler);
 
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+    let n_param = IntParam::new(1, 10);
+    let mode_param = CategoricalParam::new(vec!["a", "b", "c"]);
+
     study
-        .optimize_with_sampler(50, |trial| {
-            let x = trial.suggest_float("x", -5.0, 5.0)?;
-            let n = trial.suggest_int("n", 1, 10)?;
-            let mode = trial.suggest_categorical("mode", &["a", "b", "c"])?;
+        .optimize(50, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let n = n_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let mode = mode_param.suggest(trial)?;
 
             // Objective depends on all parameters
             let mode_factor = match mode {

tests/parameter_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,240 @@
+use optimizer::parameter::{
+    BoolParam, Categorical, CategoricalParam, EnumParam, FloatParam, IntParam, Parameter,
+};
+use optimizer::{Direction, Study, Trial};
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_float_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let x = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!((0.0..=1.0).contains(&x));
+
+    // Cached
+    let x2 = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(x, x2);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_float_log_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = FloatParam::new(1e-5, 1e-1).log_scale();
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let lr = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!((1e-5..=1e-1).contains(&lr));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_float_step_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0).step(0.25);
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let x = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!((0.0..=1.0).contains(&x));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_int_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = IntParam::new(1, 10);
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let n = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!((1..=10).contains(&n));
+
+    // Cached
+    let n2 = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(n, n2);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_int_log_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = IntParam::new(1, 1024).log_scale();
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let batch = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!((1..=1024).contains(&batch));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_int_step_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = IntParam::new(32, 512).step(32);
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let units = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!((32..=512).contains(&units));
+    assert_eq!((units - 32) % 32, 0);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_categorical_param_via_trial() {
+    let choices = vec!["sgd", "adam", "rmsprop"];
+    let param = CategoricalParam::new(choices.clone());
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let opt = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!(choices.contains(&opt));
+
+    // Cached
+    let opt2 = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(opt, opt2);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_bool_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = BoolParam::new();
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let val = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    let _ = val;
+
+    // Cached
+    let val2 = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(val, val2);
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+enum Activation {
+    Relu,
+    Sigmoid,
+    Tanh,
+}
+
+impl Categorical for Activation {
+    const N_CHOICES: usize = 3;
+
+    fn from_index(index: usize) -> Self {
+        match index {
+            0 => Activation::Relu,
+            1 => Activation::Sigmoid,
+            2 => Activation::Tanh,
+            _ => panic!("invalid index"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn to_index(&self) -> usize {
+        match self {
+            Activation::Relu => 0,
+            Activation::Sigmoid => 1,
+            Activation::Tanh => 2,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn suggest_enum_param_via_trial() {
+    let param = EnumParam::<Activation>::new();
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let act = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert!([Activation::Relu, Activation::Sigmoid, Activation::Tanh].contains(&act));
+
+    // Cached
+    let act2 = trial.suggest_param(&param).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(act, act2);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn parameter_conflict_detection() {
+    let float_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+    let int_param = IntParam::new(0, 10);
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let _ = trial.suggest_param(&float_param).unwrap();
+
+    // Different param type with different id - no conflict
+    let result = trial.suggest_param(&int_param);
+    assert!(result.is_ok());
+
+    // Different bounds for same param type but different id - no conflict
+    let float_param2 = FloatParam::new(0.0, 2.0);
+    let result = trial.suggest_param(&float_param2);
+    assert!(result.is_ok());
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn validation_prevents_suggest() {
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+
+    assert!(trial.suggest_param(&FloatParam::new(1.0, 0.0)).is_err());
+    assert!(
+        trial
+            .suggest_param(&FloatParam::new(-1.0, 1.0).log_scale())
+            .is_err()
+    );
+    assert!(
+        trial
+            .suggest_param(&FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0).step(-0.1))
+            .is_err()
+    );
+    assert!(trial.suggest_param(&IntParam::new(10, 1)).is_err());
+    assert!(
+        trial
+            .suggest_param(&IntParam::new(0, 10).log_scale())
+            .is_err()
+    );
+    assert!(trial.suggest_param(&IntParam::new(0, 10).step(-1)).is_err());
+    assert!(
+        trial
+            .suggest_param(&CategoricalParam::<&str>::new(vec![]))
+            .is_err()
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn parameter_api_with_study() {
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0);
+    let n_param = IntParam::new(1, 10);
+    let dropout_param = BoolParam::new();
+    let opt_param = CategoricalParam::new(vec!["sgd", "adam"]);
+
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    study
+        .optimize(5, |trial| {
+            let x = x_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let n = n_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let dropout = dropout_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let opt = opt_param.suggest(trial)?;
+            let _ = (n, dropout, opt);
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(x * x)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert!(best.value >= 0.0);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn parameter_suggest_method() {
+    let param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+    let x = param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!((0.0..=1.0).contains(&x));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn existing_suggest_methods_still_work() {
+    let mut trial = Trial::new(0);
+
+    let x_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+    let x = x_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!((0.0..=1.0).contains(&x));
+
+    let lr_param = FloatParam::new(1e-5, 1e-1).log_scale();
+    let lr = lr_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!((1e-5..=1e-1).contains(&lr));
+
+    let step_param = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0).step(0.25);
+    let step = step_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!((0.0..=1.0).contains(&step));
+
+    let n_param = IntParam::new(1, 10);
+    let n = n_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!((1..=10).contains(&n));
+
+    let batch_param = IntParam::new(1, 1024).log_scale();
+    let batch = batch_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!((1..=1024).contains(&batch));
+
+    let units_param = IntParam::new(32, 512).step(32);
+    let units = units_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!((32..=512).contains(&units));
+
+    let opt_param = CategoricalParam::new(vec!["sgd", "adam", "rmsprop"]);
+    let opt = opt_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    assert!(["sgd", "adam", "rmsprop"].contains(&opt));
+
+    let flag_param = BoolParam::new();
+    let flag = flag_param.suggest(&mut trial).unwrap();
+    let _ = flag;
+}

tests/serde_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,295 @@
+#![cfg(feature = "serde")]
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use optimizer::parameter::{FloatParam, IntParam, Parameter};
+use optimizer::sampler::CompletedTrial;
+use optimizer::{Direction, ParamValue, Study, StudySnapshot, TrialState};
+
+#[test]
+fn round_trip_save_load() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0).name("x");
+    let n = IntParam::new(1, 100).name("n");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(5, |trial| {
+            let x_val = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            let n_val = n.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(x_val * x_val + n_val as f64)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let path = dir.join("study.json");
+
+    study.save(&path).unwrap();
+    let loaded: Study<f64> = Study::load(&path).unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(loaded.direction(), study.direction());
+    assert_eq!(loaded.n_trials(), study.n_trials());
+
+    let orig_trials = study.trials();
+    let loaded_trials = loaded.trials();
+
+    for (orig, loaded) in orig_trials.iter().zip(loaded_trials.iter()) {
+        assert_eq!(orig.id, loaded.id);
+        assert!((orig.value - loaded.value).abs() < 1e-10);
+        assert_eq!(orig.state, loaded.state);
+        assert_eq!(orig.params.len(), loaded.params.len());
+        assert_eq!(orig.distributions, loaded.distributions);
+        assert_eq!(orig.param_labels, loaded.param_labels);
+    }
+
+    // Clean up
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn json_output_is_human_readable() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Maximize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0).name("x");
+
+    study
+        .optimize(2, |trial| {
+            let v = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(v)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let path = dir.join("study.json");
+    study.save(&path).unwrap();
+
+    let contents = std::fs::read_to_string(&path).unwrap();
+
+    // Verify it's pretty-printed JSON with recognizable fields
+    assert!(contents.contains("\"version\""));
+    assert!(contents.contains("\"direction\""));
+    assert!(contents.contains("\"trials\""));
+    assert!(contents.contains("\"next_trial_id\""));
+    assert!(contents.contains("\"Maximize\""));
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn round_trip_empty_study() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let path = dir.join("empty.json");
+
+    study.save(&path).unwrap();
+    let loaded: Study<f64> = Study::load(&path).unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(loaded.direction(), Direction::Minimize);
+    assert_eq!(loaded.n_trials(), 0);
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn snapshot_version_field_is_present() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let path = dir.join("version.json");
+    study.save(&path).unwrap();
+
+    let contents = std::fs::read_to_string(&path).unwrap();
+    let snapshot: StudySnapshot<f64> = serde_json::from_str(&contents).unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(snapshot.version, 1);
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn completed_trial_serde_round_trip() {
+    let trial = CompletedTrial::new(42, HashMap::new(), HashMap::new(), HashMap::new(), 2.78);
+
+    let json = serde_json::to_string(&trial).unwrap();
+    let deserialized: CompletedTrial<f64> = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(deserialized.id, 42);
+    assert_eq!(deserialized.value, 2.78);
+    assert_eq!(deserialized.state, TrialState::Complete);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn param_value_serde_round_trip() {
+    let values = vec![
+        ParamValue::Float(1.23),
+        ParamValue::Int(42),
+        ParamValue::Categorical(2),
+    ];
+
+    for val in &values {
+        let json = serde_json::to_string(val).unwrap();
+        let deserialized: ParamValue = serde_json::from_str(&json).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(&deserialized, val);
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn direction_serde_round_trip() {
+    let min_json = serde_json::to_string(&Direction::Minimize).unwrap();
+    let max_json = serde_json::to_string(&Direction::Maximize).unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(
+        serde_json::from_str::<Direction>(&min_json).unwrap(),
+        Direction::Minimize
+    );
+    assert_eq!(
+        serde_json::from_str::<Direction>(&max_json).unwrap(),
+        Direction::Maximize
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn round_trip_preserves_trial_id_counter() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(10, |trial| {
+            let v = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(v)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let path = dir.join("counter.json");
+    study.save(&path).unwrap();
+
+    let loaded: Study<f64> = Study::load(&path).unwrap();
+
+    // Creating a new trial should use an ID >= 10
+    let trial = loaded.create_trial();
+    assert!(trial.id() >= 10);
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn checkpoint_file_created_at_interval() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-10.0, 10.0).name("x");
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let checkpoint = dir.join("checkpoint.json");
+
+    study
+        .optimize_with_checkpoint(10, 3, &checkpoint, |trial| {
+            let v = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(v * v)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Checkpoint should exist (written at trials 3, 6, 9)
+    assert!(checkpoint.exists(), "checkpoint file was not created");
+
+    // Load it and verify it's valid
+    let loaded: Study<f64> = Study::load(&checkpoint).unwrap();
+    // Last checkpoint was at trial 9, so it should have 9 trials
+    assert_eq!(loaded.n_trials(), 9);
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn checkpoint_overwrites_previous() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let checkpoint = dir.join("checkpoint.json");
+
+    study
+        .optimize_with_checkpoint(6, 3, &checkpoint, |trial| {
+            let v = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(v)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The checkpoint at trial 6 should overwrite the one from trial 3
+    let loaded: Study<f64> = Study::load(&checkpoint).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(loaded.n_trials(), 6);
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn resume_from_checkpoint_continues_trial_ids() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(-5.0, 5.0).name("x");
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let checkpoint = dir.join("resume.json");
+
+    // Run 10 trials with checkpointing
+    study
+        .optimize_with_checkpoint(10, 5, &checkpoint, |trial| {
+            let v = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(v * v)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // Load and continue
+    let loaded: Study<f64> = Study::load(&checkpoint).unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(loaded.n_trials(), 10);
+
+    let remaining = 15 - loaded.n_trials();
+    loaded
+        .optimize(remaining, |trial| {
+            let v = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(v * v)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    assert_eq!(loaded.n_trials(), 15);
+
+    // Verify no duplicate trial IDs
+    let trials = loaded.trials();
+    let mut ids: Vec<u64> = trials.iter().map(|t| t.id).collect();
+    ids.sort_unstable();
+    ids.dedup();
+    assert_eq!(ids.len(), 15, "duplicate trial IDs found");
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn atomic_write_no_temp_file_left_behind() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    let dir = tempdir();
+    let checkpoint = dir.join("atomic.json");
+
+    study
+        .optimize_with_checkpoint(3, 3, &checkpoint, |trial| {
+            let v = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(v)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    // The temp file should have been renamed, not left behind
+    let tmp_path = dir.join(".atomic.json.tmp");
+    assert!(!tmp_path.exists(), "temp file was not cleaned up");
+    assert!(checkpoint.exists(), "checkpoint file was not created");
+
+    std::fs::remove_dir_all(&dir).ok();
+}
+
+/// Helper to create a unique temporary directory.
+fn tempdir() -> std::path::PathBuf {
+    use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+    static COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
+    let id = COUNTER.fetch_add(1, Ordering::Relaxed);
+    let dir =
+        std::env::temp_dir().join(format!("optimizer_serde_test_{}_{id}", std::process::id()));
+    std::fs::create_dir_all(&dir).unwrap();
+    dir
+}

tests/test_functions.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+#[path = "../benches/test_functions.rs"]
+mod test_functions;
+
+use test_functions::*;
+
+const TOL: f64 = 1e-10;
+
+#[test]
+fn sphere_at_optimum() {
+    assert!(sphere(&[0.0, 0.0]).abs() < TOL);
+    assert!(sphere(&[0.0; 10]).abs() < TOL);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn rosenbrock_at_optimum() {
+    assert!(rosenbrock(&[1.0, 1.0]).abs() < TOL);
+    assert!(rosenbrock(&[1.0; 5]).abs() < TOL);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn rastrigin_at_optimum() {
+    assert!(rastrigin(&[0.0, 0.0]).abs() < TOL);
+    assert!(rastrigin(&[0.0; 10]).abs() < TOL);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn ackley_at_optimum() {
+    assert!(ackley(&[0.0, 0.0]).abs() < 1e-8);
+    assert!(ackley(&[0.0; 10]).abs() < 1e-8);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn branin_at_optimum() {
+    let target = 0.397_887_357_729_738_1;
+    let val = branin(&[std::f64::consts::PI, 2.275]);
+    assert!((val - target).abs() < 1e-3);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn hartmann6_at_optimum() {
+    let target = -3.3224;
+    let x_opt = [0.20169, 0.150011, 0.476874, 0.275332, 0.311652, 0.6573];
+    let val = hartmann6(&x_opt);
+    assert!((val - target).abs() < 0.01);
+}

tests/threshold_pruner_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+use optimizer::pruner::{Pruner, ThresholdPruner};
+
+#[test]
+fn prune_when_value_exceeds_upper_threshold() {
+    let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(10.0);
+    let values = vec![(0, 5.0), (1, 8.0), (2, 11.0)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(0, 2, &values, &[]));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn prune_when_value_falls_below_lower_threshold() {
+    let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().lower(0.0);
+    let values = vec![(0, 5.0), (1, 2.0), (2, -1.0)];
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(0, 2, &values, &[]));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_when_value_within_bounds() {
+    let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(10.0).lower(0.0);
+    let values = vec![(0, 3.0), (1, 5.0), (2, 7.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 2, &values, &[]));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn no_prune_when_no_intermediate_values() {
+    let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(10.0).lower(0.0);
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[], &[]));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn works_with_only_upper_set() {
+    let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(5.0);
+    let below = vec![(0, 3.0)];
+    let above = vec![(0, 6.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &below, &[]));
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &above, &[]));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn works_with_only_lower_set() {
+    let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().lower(2.0);
+    let above = vec![(0, 5.0)];
+    let below = vec![(0, 1.0)];
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &above, &[]));
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &below, &[]));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn works_with_both_thresholds_set() {
+    let pruner = ThresholdPruner::new().upper(10.0).lower(0.0);
+
+    // Within bounds
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[(0, 5.0)], &[]));
+
+    // Exceeds upper
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[(0, 15.0)], &[]));
+
+    // Below lower
+    assert!(pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[(0, -3.0)], &[]));
+
+    // At exact boundary (not pruned — strictly greater/less)
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[(0, 10.0)], &[]));
+    assert!(!pruner.should_prune(0, 0, &[(0, 0.0)], &[]));
+}

tests/user_attr_tests.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,148 @@
+use optimizer::parameter::{FloatParam, Parameter};
+use optimizer::{AttrValue, Direction, Study};
+
+#[test]
+fn set_and_get_float_attr() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            trial.set_user_attr("score", 42.5);
+            assert_eq!(trial.user_attr("score"), Some(&AttrValue::Float(42.5)));
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn set_and_get_int_attr() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            trial.set_user_attr("epoch", 42_i64);
+            assert_eq!(trial.user_attr("epoch"), Some(&AttrValue::Int(42)));
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn set_and_get_string_attr() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            trial.set_user_attr("model", "resnet50");
+            assert_eq!(
+                trial.user_attr("model"),
+                Some(&AttrValue::String("resnet50".to_owned()))
+            );
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn set_and_get_bool_attr() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            trial.set_user_attr("converged", true);
+            assert_eq!(trial.user_attr("converged"), Some(&AttrValue::Bool(true)));
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn attrs_propagate_to_completed_trial() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            trial.set_user_attr("time_secs", 1.5);
+            trial.set_user_attr("tag", "baseline");
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(best.user_attr("time_secs"), Some(&AttrValue::Float(1.5)));
+    assert_eq!(
+        best.user_attr("tag"),
+        Some(&AttrValue::String("baseline".to_owned()))
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn overwrite_attr_replaces_value() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            trial.set_user_attr("key", "old");
+            trial.set_user_attr("key", "new");
+            assert_eq!(
+                trial.user_attr("key"),
+                Some(&AttrValue::String("new".to_owned()))
+            );
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(
+        best.user_attr("key"),
+        Some(&AttrValue::String("new".to_owned()))
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn missing_attr_returns_none() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            assert_eq!(trial.user_attr("nonexistent"), None);
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(best.user_attr("nonexistent"), None);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn user_attrs_map_returns_all() {
+    let study: Study<f64> = Study::new(Direction::Minimize);
+    let x = FloatParam::new(0.0, 1.0);
+
+    study
+        .optimize(1, |trial| {
+            let _ = x.suggest(trial)?;
+            trial.set_user_attr("a", 1.0);
+            trial.set_user_attr("b", true);
+            assert_eq!(trial.user_attrs().len(), 2);
+            Ok::<_, optimizer::Error>(1.0)
+        })
+        .unwrap();
+
+    let best = study.best_trial().unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(best.user_attrs().len(), 2);
+}

typos.toml

@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
 [default.extend-words]
 Tpe = "Tpe"
+consts = "consts"